PowerPoints for the APUSH text,The American Pageant, downloaded in PDF form (PDF can be accessed for free). Chapter 1 Chapter 2. Not Available - Chapter 3. Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16.

This box: • • • Wikimedia Commons has media related to. 1989 () was a of the, the 1989th year of the (CE) and (AD) designations, the 989th year of the, the 89th year of the, and the 10th and last year of the decade.

1989 was a turning point in political history because a wave of revolutions swept the, starting in Poland that summer with the beginning of a move towards, coming to a head with the opening of the Berlin Wall in November, embracing the overthrow of the communist dictatorship in Romania in December, and ending in December 1991 with the. Collectively known as the, they heralded the beginning of the. It was the year of the first in 29 years, since the end of the in which commanded the country for more than twenty years, and marked the redemocratization process's final point. Was elected in South Africa, and his regime gradually dismantled the system over the next five years, culminating with the that brought jailed ANC leader to power.

The first commercial surfaced in this year, as well as the first written proposal for the and New Zealand, Japan and Australia's first Internet connections. The first babies born after were conceived in late 1989, starting the era of. 1989 marked the beginning of the current in Japan.

It is also, the latest year, when written in Roman numerals, to have an L. 1989 was trademarked in August of 2014, by, who was born in 1989. Mass demonstration at State TV HQ • hands over to, ending a seven-year territorial dispute. • Mass demonstrations in Hungary, demanding democracy.

• – The approves agricultural reforms allowing farmers the right to lease state-owned farms for life. • • The of, built in the 11th century, collapses. • is elected.

• – weeps on national television as he admits marital infidelity. • • of the suffers an almost fatal injury when another player accidentally slits his throat.

• Asteroid approaches the Earth at a distance of 700,000 kilometers. The • – and announce that they have achieved at the.

• – – The passes constitutional changes revoking the autonomy of the, triggering 6 days of rioting by the, during which at least 29 people are killed. • –: In Alaska's, the spills 240,000 barrels (38,000 m 3) of after running aground. • – The first contested for the parliament,, result in losses for the. • – The are held at the in, with winning. Roberta Flack Feel Like Makin Love Rare. April [ ] • • 's new tax, the, is introduced in Scotland. • • In, fighting erupts between insurgents and the on the day that a cease-fire was supposed to end the according to. By, nearly 300 people are killed.

• • A failed coup attempt against,, leads to a standoff between mutinous troops and the government which ends, with the government regaining control of the country. • In, Belgium, celebrates its 40th anniversary. • – The Polish Government and the Solidarity labor union sign an agreement restoring Solidarity to legal status, and agreeing to hold democratic elections on June 1. • – National Safety Council of Australia chief executive is arrested after defrauding investors to the tune of $235 million. • – The sinks in the, killing 41.

• •: demonstrators are massacred by soldiers in 's central square during a peaceful rally; 20 citizens are killed, many injured. • A dispute over grazing rights leads to the beginning of the. • – becomes the first in history to score a in the. Government seizes the Irvine, California,; (for whom the were named) eventually goes to jail, as part of the massive 1980s which costs U.S. Taxpayers nearly $200 billion in bailouts, and many people their life savings. • • The death of sparks the beginning of the.

• The, one of the biggest tragedies in European, claims the life of 96 supporters. • – Poland, is again legalized and allowed to participate in semi-free elections on June 4. • • while jogging in New York City's; as her identity remains secret for years, she becomes known as the 'Central Park Jogger.' • A gun turret explodes on the U.S.

Battleship, killing 47 crew members. • – debates modernising short range missiles; although the U.S. Are in favour, West German Chancellor obtains a concession deferring a decision. • – Students from Beijing, Shanghai,, and begin protesting in. • – resigns as in the wake of riots over government imposed price hikes that began on April 18. • • resigns as in the wake of a stock-trading scandal.

• The term of as the 8th of ends. • introduces the Personal Cellular Telephone, then the world's smallest mobile phone. • •, of, becomes the 9th of. • succeeds Zaid al-Rifai as Prime Minister of Jordan.

• The, the deadliest tornado ever recorded, kills an estimated 1,300 people in the of. • – A major demonstration occurs in Beijing, as part of the. • – begins a 9-day trip to,,, and.

May [ ] • May – – of adult human beings is tried for the first time, a trial. • May – The Soviet Union issues its first Visa card in a step to digitalize its banking system. • •, who had seized power and declared himself during a military coup in February, wins a landslide election in a marked by charges of fraud. • at opens to the public for the first time.

• • The first crack in the: Hungary dismantles 150 miles (240 km) of barbed wire fencing along the border with Austria. • The coalition government of collapses in a dispute about a pollution cleanup plan. • – – – The first restaurant in the USSR begins construction in Moscow. It will open on 31 January 1990. • – convicted on charges related to the. His conviction was thrown out on appeal in 1991 because of his immunized testimony.

• • wins the in Lausanne with the song ' performed. • opens at amusement park in as the world's tallest and fastest roller coaster. • – deposes as Federal Opposition Leader of Australia. • – The government of declares void the result of the May 7 presidential election, which Noriega had lost to. • • President Bush orders 1,900 U.S.

Troops to Panama to protect Americans there. • The ACT () Legislative Assembly meets for the first time. • • visits China, the first Soviet leader to do so since in the. • – Australia's first private tertiary institution,, opens on the Gold Coast. • – Coup Attempt: Senior military officers stage a coup attempt in Ethiopia hours after President leaves on a visit to.

• – More than 1 million Chinese protestors demanding greater democracy. • •: and Muslim protesters riot in front of the government building in, China.

•: meets the demonstrators in. • resigns as. • –: The Chinese government declares martial law in Beijing. • – The Days in Leningrad region () open.

• • Amid set off by inflation, the Government of Argentina declares a nationwide state of siege. • gains a seat on the. •: The 10 m (33 ft) high statue is unveiled in by student demonstrators. • NATO agrees to talks with the Soviet Union on reducing the number of short-range nuclear weapons in Europe. • An attempted assassination of Miguel Maza Marquez, director of the (DAS) in, is committed by members of the, who kill 4 and injure 37.

• – Six members of the guerrilla group (MRTA) of Peru, shoot dead 8, in the city of. The • • The are freed after 14 years. • The pavilion opens at in,. • – The of the issue the on the Environment, making one of the Commonwealth's main priorities. • • The is officially declared by president (replacing the Hungarian People's Republic), exactly 33 years after the. • The in kills 23 and injures 314 others. • – United States takes effect.

Mass protests in Seattle and New York City • –,,, and on steps of to protest Flag Protection Act • • The elects Prime Minister as the eighth. • Half a million people demonstrate in the East German city of. November [ ]. Germans standing on top of the • November – First commercial dial-up Internet connection in North America is made, by The World STD. • November – The first store in the, a Sam's Club, is opened in Delran, New Jersey.

• November – Construction of the commences. • • The ends a cease-fire with U.S.-backed that had been in effect since April 1988. • The border between and is reopened. • – and celebrate their 100th birthdays.

• – refugees arrive at the West German town of after being allowed through Czechoslovakia. • – devastates 's. • – The (APEC) is founded. • • wins the governor's race, becoming the first elected governor in the United States. • becomes the first mayor of New York City. •: The government of resigns, although leader remains head of state. • • and Fall of the: accidentally states in a live broadcast press conference that new rules for traveling from East Germany to West Germany will be put in effect 'immediately'.

East Germany opens checkpoints in the, allowing its citizens to travel freely to West Germany for the first time in decades (November 17 celebrates tearing the wall down). • of forms the new government of (47th government). • • After 45 years of Communist rule in, leader is replaced by Foreign Minister, who changes the party's name to the. • becomes the first Australian woman to fly solo around the world. • (a Canadian national all- network) suddenly terminates all broadcasting during the newscast at noon (Eastern time), due to financial losses (the station began broadcasting on, ). • – is inaugurated as World Champion. • – holds its first free presidential election since.

This marks the first time that all nations, excepting, have elected constitutional governments simultaneously. • – becomes Prince of on the death of his father, Prince.

• – are held in, leading to a victory for the. • •, leader of Poland's, addresses a. • Brazil holds the first round of its first free election in 29 years; and are qualified to the second round, which will be disputed the following month. • The first American shop, an outlet, opens in Moscow. • South African President announces the scrapping of the.

• adopts the at the 25th session of its General Conference. A peaceful demonstration in Prague during the. • – –: A peaceful student demonstration in,, is severely beaten back by riot police. This sparks a revolution aimed at overthrowing the Communist government (it succeeds on ). • – –: The number of peaceful protesters assembled in,, swells from 200,000 the day before to an estimated half-million. • – The begin to draft the, which will be the constitution of the newly independent. • – In West, a bomb explodes near the motorcade of President and kills him.

• – Following a week of demonstrations demanding free elections and other reforms, General Secretary and other leaders of the resign. Jakeš is replaced. • • The win on a last seconds field goal to win a major points output; winning the versus the 43-40. •: is elected President of Uruguay. • – domestic passenger flight is bombed by the in an (unsuccessful) attempt to kill presidential candidate for the.

• – –: The announces they will give up their on political power (elections held in December bring the first non-communist government to in more than 40 years). • – resigns as after his party, the, loses about half of its seats in the. • – board member is killed by a bomb (the claims responsibility for the murder). December [ ] • • In a meeting with, pledges greater for citizens of the. •: 's parliament abolishes the constitutional provision granting the Communist-dominated its monopoly on power., the Politburo and the Central Committee resign 2 days later. • A military begins in the against the government of. It is crushed by United States intervention ending.

• • The, launched in 1980, crashes back to earth. • takes office as. • In the, the suffers its worst election setback in 40 years in power, winning only 53% of the popular vote.

• The concludes with a peace agreement. The disbands and remains in exile in until his death in. • The last two Japanese surrender. • • The entire leadership of the ruling in East Germany, including, resigns. •: – In a meeting off the coast of, U.S.

President and Soviet leader release statements indicating that the between their nations may be coming to an end. • – resigns and is replaced. • • The occurs in, killing 52 people and injuring about 1,000. • resigns as, and is replaced by, the first non-Communist to hold that post. • (or Montreal Massacre):, an anti-feminist gunman, murders 14 young women at the. • The last episode of the classic era of is broadcast on British television.

• • resigns as. He is succeeded by on December 10. •: The becomes the first of the to abolish the Communist Party's monopoly on power. • – The elects the reformist as party leader. • • swears in a new cabinet with a non-Communist and then immediately resigns as president. • announces the establishment of Mongolia's democratic movement, that peacefully changes the second oldest communist country into a democratic society.

• – The International Trans-Antarctica Expedition, a group of six explorers from six nations, reaches the. • – holds its in 16 years, electing as president. • – Drug baron is killed by police. Flames engulf a building following the.

• – Workers in Romanian cities go on strike in protest against the communist regime. • – The ('Operation Just Cause') is launched in an attempt to overthrow dictator. • – addresses an assembly of some 110,000 people outside the Romanian Communist Party headquarters in. The crowd begin to protest against Ceaușescu and he orders the to attack the protesters. • • After a week of bloody demonstrations, takes over as president of, ending the of, who flees his palace in a helicopter to escape inevitable execution after the palace is invaded by rioters.

The Romanian troops, who the day before had followed Ceaușescu's orders to attack the demonstrators, change sides and join the uprising. • Two tourist coaches collide on the Pacific highway north of, Australia, killing 35.

• – and are captured in. • • Romanian leader Nicolae Ceaușescu and his wife Elena are by military troops after being found guilty of crimes against humanity. • governors announce a major interest rate hike, eventually leading to the peak and fall of the.

• – A magnitude 5.6 earthquake hits, Australia, killing 13 people. • • is elected president of. • Riots break out after Hong Kong decides to forcibly repatriate refugees. • for hits its all-time intra-day high of 38,957.44 and closing high at 38,915.87.

•, the company that produces, is incorporated in California. • – Poland's president signs the, ending the system in Poland in favor of a system and Polish involvement in the. Date unknown [ ] • The first -related cell in the United States begins operation in New York City. • 's goes into receivership with the largest debt in Australian history. • The United States leaves its embassy in Kabul, Afghanistan, it does not return until late 2001.

• Homosexual acts between consenting adults are decriminalized in Western Australia. • opens to Russian civilian visitors. • The propeller-driven anti-submarine planes are retired from active carrier service in the French Navy. • The first national park in the Netherlands is established in. • in closes after an incident on one of the slides. • ( Chelyabinsk) is commissioned. • The wreck of the is discovered off by Harry Zych.

• introduces the, about the collapse of. • The board is established by the of the. • The is founded in, by David and Diana Wilson.

• The last is seen; the species is now classified extinct. • A rocks, killing nearly 1,000 people.

• The is established. • The global concentration of reaches 350 parts per million by volume. • posts revenues and profits triple its 1986 figures and rivals and in importance in the American market. • are the first group to sell a million copies of an album; their album.

• The military dismantles its last nuclear weapons. Births [ ] January [ ]. • •, French actress •, Lithuanian model • –, Canadian actress • •, American actor •, American fashion model •, Japanese gymnast • •, Swiss 400 metres hurdler •, British urban and hip-hop musician •, American model •, Kenian javelin thrower • •, English footballer •, contestant •, Dutch DJ • •, Argentine footballer •, Malaysian footballer • •, American basketball player •, Bulgarian-born Canadian actress • •, American Olympic swmmer •, American actress • •, British actor •, Saudi footballer • –, Filipina actress & model • –, British singer • •, Russian ice hockey player (d. • •, Australian professional wrestler •, American actress •, Mexican footballer • –, French Olympic freestyle skiier • –, American fashion model • •, American actor •, American actor • –, Polish tennis player • –, Filipino actor • –, South Korean singer () • –, Vietnamese artistic gymnast • •, Israeli actress •, Russian-born American actor (d. ) • –, American Olympic swimmer • –, British performer (d. ) • –, American singer • –, American actress • •, American basketball player •, English footballer • •, American singer •, Japanese football player • •, Italian footballer •, British-born American actress, daughter of, lead singer of British rock group •, Japanese singer-songwriter • –, Chinese model • •, British singer ( & ) •, Japanese actor () •, professional footballer • •, Cape Verdean middle distance runner •, American singer •, American football player •, Brazilian model • –, Australian bodybuilder (d. ) • •, English footballer •, American actress and singer • –, American YouTube personality • –, Honduran footballer (d.

) • –, Chinese swimmer April [ ]. • •, American soccer player •, American football player •, Australian cricketer • •, American singer •, British actress • •, Polish hammer thrower •, Azerbaijani singer • •, American ice hockey player •, Colombian beauty queen and model • •, British actor •, French operatic tenor • –, Irish singer • •, South African cricketer •, Romanian singer • –, Filipina-American beauty queen, singer, model, actress and martial artist • •, British motocross racer •, American singer, musical theater and television actress • –, American actress and singer • –, American actress and singer (d. ) • •, French-born Gabonese footballer •, Austrian alpine ski racer •, American actress and singer • –, American actor • –, American race car driver • –, British singer, dancer, painter, photographer and model • •, British actor •, Brazilian supermodel • •, American personality •, American shot putter • –, Polish graphics designer • –, Latvian model July [ ]. • –, Formula 1 driver.

• •, American-born Korean singer, member of Korean group () •, American baseball player •, Japanese actress • •, Belgian footballer •, South African netball player • •, French driver (d. ) •, English footballer • •, Australian actress and singer-songwriter () •, Chinese chess player • •, Serbian singer •, French footballer •, American model and actress •, Chinese golfer • –, American basketball player • •, American actor and author •, Bulgarian tennis player •, American baseball player •, British swimmer • •, Italian footballer •, British actress •, American actress •, American baseball player • •, Israeli footballer •, Canadian ice hockey player •, Australian actor • •, Taiwanese singer and actress (Hey Girl) •, Irish cyclist and triathlete (d. ) •, German footballer • •, Canadian ice hockey player •, Spanish professional footballer • •, Mexican singer and actress •, American musician, actor, and singer •, American actor, dancer and singer •, Canadian voice actress • –, American rapper and actor • –, American rapper • •, English actor (d. ) •, American actress and singer • –, American reality television star • –, American basketball player • –, American figure skater • •, American singer-songwriter •, Formula One driver • –, American singer-songwriter September [ ].

• •, German singer () •, Ecuadorian footballer •, English footballer • •, record producer, DJ, musician, multi-instrumentalist and songwriter. •, Brazilian footballer • –, Swiss-born American actress, model, singer and dancer. • –, British actor • •, Swedish DJ, remixer, and record producer •, Argentine actor. • –, American Professional Skateboarder • •, American baseball player •, Canadian artistic gymnast •, American football player • •, Australian rugby league player (d. • –, American singer, songwriter, actress • •, Mexican-American singer •, South Korean professional gamer (, ) •, British actor •, British actor • –, English footballer • •, American soccer player •, American football player and convicted murderer (d.

) • –, American baseball player. • –, Maltese doctor and singer • •, British actor •, Estonian actress • •, American figure skater •, Japanese rock singer, lead singer of Japanese rock group, and former member of pop group • •, Italian rapper •, English footballer • –, Filipina singer • –, American rapper • •, American actor •, Ukrainian ballet dancer • –, Season 12 winner • •, British musician •, American singer-songwriter () • –, Belgian singer-songwriter • –, Filipina singer and actress • •, English footballer •, Japanese model • •, British actress •, British darts player •, British handball player December [ ]. • –, American chemist (b.

) • •, Sri Lanka actor (b. ) •, Israeli politician (b. ) • •, British mathematician (b.

) •,, one of the leader of (b. ) • –, American actor (b. ) • •, abbot of (b. ) •, American radio reporter (b. ) •, American composer and musician (b. ) • •, Swedish opera singer (b. ) •, Estonian statesman and diplomat (b.

) •, Peruvian politician, diplomat and jurist, 33rd (b. ) • –, American actor (, ) (b. ) • •, American administrator and businessman (b. ) •, German television presenter and game show host (b. ) • •, Indian actor (b. ) •, American actor (b.

) • –, British author (b. ) • –, English actress (b. ) • •, Canadian actress (b. ) •, Polish communist politician, 2-time and 15th (b. ) • •, Albanian tribal leader, political and military leader (b. ) •, American baseball player (b. ) •, American musician (b.

) • –, Spanish artist (b. ) • –, American serial killer (executed) (b. ) • •, Filipino dancer and actor (b. ) •, British aviation pioneer and yachtsman (b. ) • –, Portuguese writer and doctor (b. ) February [ ].

• –, American artist (b. ) • –, Slovakian figure skater (b. ) • •, American actress (b. ) •, American actor and author (b. ) •, American golfer (b. ) • –, University of South Carolina Head Football Coach (b.

) • •, American historian (b. ) •, Indonesian actress (b. ) •, American choreographer (b. ) • –, Brazilian filmmaker (b. ) • –, Japanese artist, e.g. ) • •, Sheikh, former ruler of Abu Dhabi (b. ) •, British screenwriter (b.

) •, American actor and director (b. ) • •, French priest and bishop (b. ) • •, American ornithologist (b.

) •, British musician () (b. ) • •, Mexican-American baseball player () and member of the (b. ) •, American musician, composer for and (b. ) • –, British actor (b. ) • –, British actor (b. ) • •, Hungarian writer and journalist (b.

) •, Israeli politician (b. ) • –, East Timor politician (b. ) • –, Soviet monk and servant of God (b. ) • –, American baseball player (b. ) • –, American musician (b. ) • •, German astronomer (b.

) •, Austrian zoologist, recipient of the (b. • –, English amateur footballer, professional soldier (b.

) • –, British actor (b. ) • •, French politician (b. ) •, American musician (b.

) • –, American photographer (b. ) • –, Italian actor (b. ) • –, American politician (b. ) • •, British actor (b. ) •, American architect and historian (b. ) • •, American author and environmentalist (b.

) •, American businessman (b. ) • Empress, Wife of Emperor, last Empress of Austria (b. ) • –, Basque Spanish politician (b. ) • –, American actor (b. ) • •, Japanese author (b. ) •, English-born French horn player (b. ) • –, American actor (b.

) • –, Jordanian political figure, 3-time (b. ) • •, American actress (b. ) •, American author (b. ) •, American actor and director (b. ) •, Arcade game world record holder (b. ) • •, French actor (b.

) •, Soviet footballer (b. • –, Chilean soccer player (b. ) • –, supporter of (b. ) • •, Israeli sculptor (b. ) •, British actor (b. ) •, American political activist (b. ) •, American professional boxer (b.

) • • Patriarch (b. ) •, Portuguese bishop (b. ) • •, British missionary (b. ) •, French playwright (b. ) •, French actor (b. ) • –, American baseball player and umpire (b.

) • –, British writer (b. ) • • of Korea (b.

) •, American playwright (b. ) • –, Italian physicist, laureate (b. ) • •, Nigerien politician, 1st (b. ) •, Chinese actress (b. ) • •, British prelate (b. ) •, Venezuelan lawyer, diplomat, and politician, Interim (b.

) • –, British actor (b. ) • –, American entertainer (b. ) • –, Japanese industrialist (b. ) • •, Italian film director (b. ) •, Italian-American actor (b.

• •, Brazilian bishop (b. ) •, fashion editor at Life magazine (b.

) •, Polish actvist and politician, 13th (b. ) • –, Italian cardinal (b.

) • –, Norwegian actress, singer and writer (b. ) • –, American actor (b. ) • –, American singer (b. ) • –, American jazz trumpeter (b. ) • –, Chinese general and Minister of Culture (b. ) • –, American songwriter (b. ) • –, Iranian-born American poet (b.

) • –, German actor (b. ) • •, German actor (b. ) •, Trinidadian writer and historian (b. ) •, American actor (b. ) • •, American actor (b. ) •, British economist, laureate (b. ) •, American comedian and actress (b.

) • –, English footballer and manager (b. ) • –, American musician () (b.

) • –, British RAF Fighter pilot (b. ) • –, British architectural historian, collaborator of the (b. • • Ayatollah, Iranian philosopher, politician, revolutionary and religious leader, 1st (b.

) •, RAAF Senior Commander (b. ) • –, American cartoonist (b. ) • –, American restaurateur (b. ) • •, American geneticist, recipient of the (b.

) •, Danish politician (b. ) •, Argentine Peronist politician (b. ) • –, American actor (b. ) • –, Australian actress (b. ) • •, Irish actor (b. ) •, American actor and director (b.

) • –, American football player and actor (b. ) • –, German cathedratic and politician (b. ) • •, American Olympic athlete (b.

) •, Israeli historian (b. ) • •, German Nazi official (b. ) • –, Japanese singer (b. ) • –, Canadian politician, former Foreign secretary (b. ) • •, British philosopher (b. ) •, American actor (b.

) •, Italian film director (b. ) • –, Dutch filmmaker (b. ) • –, Danish politician and 34th (b. • •, Soviet politician and diplomat, former Foreign Minister (b.

) •, British actor in radio, film and television (b. ) •, American film director (b. ) • –, American actor (b.

) • •, British actor (b. ) •, American voice actor (b. ) • –, German-born British calligrapher, typographer and illustrator (b.

) • –, Hungarian politician & communist leader, 46th (b. ) • –, French actor (b. ) • –, American voice actor best known for voicing characters like, and (b. ) • –, English stage and screen actor and director (b. ) • –, Spanish archbishop and venerable (b.

) • –, English footballer (b. ) • –, Austrian conductor (b.

) • –, Nauruan pastor and politician (b. ) • •, American baseball player (b. ) •, American actress (b. ) • –, 2-time and 15th (b. ) • •, American politician (b. ) •, American film actress (b.

) • –, Finnish bass (b. ) • •, American writer (b. ) •, English television presenter (b. ) • –, American actor (b. ) • –, American actress (b. ) • –, American bull rider (b. ) August [ ].

• –, British pianist (b. ) • •, British actor (b. ) •, Swedish actress (b. ) • •, American congressman (b. ) •, Swedish-born Finnish writer and journalist (b. ) • –, American actor (b.

) • –, American orthodonist and inventor (b. ) • –, American physicist, laureate (b.

) • •, Argentine film actor, film director and tango singer (b. ) •, American race car driver (b. ) • –, American political figure (b. ) • –, Japanese aviator, naval officer and politician (b. ) • •, French-born Gabonese politician (b. ) •, American actress (b.

) • •, British TV presenter, creator of; (b. ) •, Chinese politician, head of province (b. ) • •, Indian-born conservationist (assassinated) (b. ) •, American actor, stunt driver and filmmaker (b. ) •, American cinematographer (b.

) • –, Brazilian singer (b. ) • •, Canadian jurist (b. ) •, American fashion editor (b. ) •, co-founder of the (murdered) (b. ) • –, British psychiatrist (b. ) • –, American writer (b. ) • •, American Olympic swimmer (b.

) •, British naturalist, artist and explorer (b. ) • •, American baseball player (b. ) •, American actor and sculptor (b.

) September [ ]. • –, American President of Yale University and (b. ) • •, Sri Lanka bishop (b. ) •, Belgian writer (b. ) •, New Zealand-born classicist and historian (b. ) • •, Australian footballer (b. ) •, British music critic (b.

) • •, American bishop (b. ) •, British actress (b. ) •, Austrian biologist (b. ) • –, Cuban musician (b. ) • –, American writer (b.

) • •, American politician (b. ) •, American kidnapping victim (b. ) • –, American composer (b. ) • –, American singer (b. ) • –, Filipino dictator, politician and statesman, 10th (b. ) • •, British writer, pacifist and ornithologist (b.

) •, American composer (b. ) •, Vietnamese politician, 16th () (b. ) October [ ]. • –, Italian actor, director and screenwriter (b. ) • –, British comedian ( Monty Python) (b. ) • –, American actress (b.

) • –, American journalist and author (b. ) • •, American geophysicist (b.

) •, American actor (b. ) • –, American animator, creator of,, etc. ) • •, British children's writer and winner of 5 (b.

) •, American actor (b. ) • •, Israeli journalist and author (b. ) •, British actor (b. ) • •, American kidnapping victim (b. ) •, American actor (b.

) • –, Indian military officer (b. ) • –, American writer (b.

) • –, American chemist, laureate (b. ) • –, British bandleader (b. ) • –, Mexican singer and actor (b. ) • –, Bulgarian theatre and film actor (b. ) November [ ].

• –, American civil rights activist (b. ) • –, Fijian physician and politician (b. ) • •, Russian pianist (b. ) •, American soldier and singer-songwriter (b. ) • –, French religious sister and missionary (b.

) • –, Canadian minister and librarian (b. ) • •, Canadian Olympic swimmer (b. ) • •, Canadian lawyer and politician (b. ) • Murder of Three Salvadorian: •, Jesuit priest, theologian and saint (b.

) •, Jesuit priest, theologian and saint (b. ) •, Jesuit priest, theologian and saint (b. ) • –, American actress (b. ) • •, American actress (b.

) •, Italian writer (b. ) • •, American cartoonist (b. ) •, 8th (assassinated) (b. ) • –, Japanese voice actress (b. ) • –, Palestine scholar and theologian (b. ) • –, Comorian politician, 1st (assassinated) (b.

) • –, Spanish politician, 71st (b. ) • –, Italian cardinal (b. ) • •, Indian poet and lyricist (b. ) •, English cricketer (b. ) •, Italian football player (b. ) •, Italian actor (b. ) • –, Cameroonian politician, 1st and (b.

) December [ ]. • –, American dancer and choreographer (b. ) • –, American baseball player (b. ) • •, Beninese political figure, 2nd (b. ) •, Soviet painter (b.

) •, Spanish basketball player (car accident) (b. ) • –, British barrister and Labour politician (b.

) • –, British conductor (b. ) • •, American actress (b. ) •, American composer (b. ) •, Canadian mass murderer (b. ) •, American actor (b. ) • –, American professional wrestler (b.

) • –, German-born French painter (b. ) • –, American singer and actor (b. ) • •, American actor (b. ) •, Soviet physicist and activist, recipient of the (declined) (b. ) • •, Colombian drug lord and criminal (b.

) •, British stage and film veteran (b. ) • •, Italian actress (b. ) •, American actress (b. ) • –, American actor (b. ) • –, American general (b. ) • •, Puerto Rican educator, critic and essayist (b.

) •, Soviet politician (b. ) •, Grenadian politician, 6th (b. ) • –, German bass (b. ) • •, Slovak composer (b. ) •, Nigerian/British photographer, co-founder (b. 1955) • •, Irish writer, laureate (b. ) •, Romanian military officer and politician, minister of Defense (suicide) (b.

) • –, British actor (b. ) • •, Romanian politician, dictator and Communist Party head, 1st (executed) (b. ) •, wife of Nicolae Ceaușescu and Deputy Prime Minister of Romania (executed) (b. ) •, American baseball player and manager (b. ) • –, English composer (b. ) • –, British actor (b. ) • •, Japanese Olympic swimmer (b.

) •, Welsh actress (b. ) • •, German politician (b. ) • Sir, 4th (b. ) Nobel Prizes [ ]. • Uchitelle, Louis (December 11, 1989)...

Retrieved 2014-08-19. Retrieved 2014-08-19. Retrieved 2017-11-30.

• ^ Crystal, David, ed. The Cambridge Encyclopedia. Cambridge University Press. • Wilkens, Herbert; Maennig, Wolfgang (1997).. Duncker & Humblot. Retrieved 2014-08-19.

24 August 1990. Retrieved 8 April 2017. Retrieved 2013-08-08. Retrieved 2013-08-08. Retrieved 2013-08-08.

• • Belsie, Laurent (June 29, 2009).. The Christian Science Monitor. • ^ (Accessed on 14 April 2017) •. Retrieved 2013-08-08. Retrieved 2013-08-08. Archived from on 2014-09-30.

Retrieved 2013-10-01. • Rule, Sheila (1989-10-02)... Retrieved 2012-06-07. Garmin Unlocker Alternative Скачать Бесплатно.

Retrieved 2016-11-30. Retrieved 2013-08-08. Retrieved 2013-08-08. Archived from on 2015-09-30. Retrieved 2015-10-17. Retrieved 2014-08-19.

Retrieved 2014-08-19. • Hayes, Thomas C.

The New York Times. Retrieved 2013-08-08.

• Pareles, Jon (December 10, 1989).. The New York Times.

Strength 2,200,000: • • • • 698,000 (peak) [ ] 750,000–1,000,000: • • • 360,000 (peak) Casualties and losses 110,000+ killed in action/died of wounds 230,000+ accident/disease deaths 25,000–30,000 died in Confederate prisons 365,000+ total dead 282,000+ wounded 181,193 captured [ ] Total: 828,000+ casualties 94,000+ killed in action/died of wounds 26,000–31,000 died in Union prisons 290,000+ total dead 137,000+ wounded 436,658 captured [ ] Total: 864,000+ casualties 50,000 free civilians dead 80,000+ slaves dead Total: 785,000–1,000,000+ dead. • • • • • • The American Civil War was fought in the from 1861 to 1865. The result of a long-standing over, war broke out in April 1861, when attacked in, shortly after President was.

The nationalists of the proclaimed loyalty to the U.S. They faced of the, who advocated for to expand slavery. Among the 34 in February 1861, seven individually declared their from the U.S. To form the Confederate States of America, or the South. The Confederacy grew to include eleven slave states.

The Confederacy was never diplomatically recognized by the, nor was it recognized by any foreign country (although the United Kingdom and France granted it ). The states that remained loyal to the U.S. (including the where slavery was legal) were known as the Union or the North. The Union and Confederacy quickly raised volunteer and conscription armies that fought mostly in the South over four years. The Union finally won the war when General surrendered to General at the followed by a series of by Confederate generals throughout the southern states. Four years of intense combat left 620,000 to 750,000 people dead, a higher number than the number of U.S. Military deaths in all other wars combined.

Much of the South's infrastructure was destroyed, especially the transportation systems, railroads, mills and houses. The Confederacy, slavery, and 4 million slaves were freed. The (1863–1877) overlapped and followed the war, with the process of restoring national unity, strengthening the national government, and granting to freed slaves throughout the country. The Civil War is the most studied and episode in. Contents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Prelude to war In the,, led by, supported banning slavery in all the. The Southern states viewed this as a violation of their constitutional rights and as the first step in a grander Republican plan to eventually abolish slavery.

The three pro-Union candidates together received an overwhelming 82% majority of the votes cast nationally: Republican Lincoln's votes centered in the north, ' votes were distributed nationally and 's votes centered in,, and. The Republican Party, dominant in the North, secured a of the popular votes and a majority of the electoral votes nationally, so Lincoln was constitutionally elected president.

He was the first Republican Party candidate to win the presidency. However, before, seven slave states with -based economies declared secession and formed the. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, a total of 49 percent. The first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in with 51% and with 55%. Had voted 46% for those unionists, with 40%, with 38%, with 25%, and cast votes without a popular vote for president.

Of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession. Outgoing Democratic President and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Declared that his administration would not initiate a. Speaking directly to the 'Southern States', he attempted to calm their fears of any threats to slavery, reaffirming, 'I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists.

I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so.' After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed and both sides prepared for war. The Confederates assumed that countries were so dependent on ' that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces. While in the the Union made significant permanent gains, in the, the battle was inconclusive from 1861–1862. Lincoln issued the, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, and seized.

The 1863 Union split the Confederacy in two at the. In 1863, 's Confederate incursion north ended at the.

Western successes led to 's command of all Union armies in 1864. Inflicting an ever-tightening of Confederate ports, the Union marshaled the resources and manpower to attack the Confederacy from all directions, leading to the to and. The last significant battles raged around the. Lee's escape attempt ended with his, on April 9, 1865. While the military war was coming to an end, the political reintegration of the nation was to take another 12 years, known as the.

The American Civil War was one of the earliest true. Railroads, the, steamships and ships, and mass-produced weapons were employed extensively. The mobilization of civilian factories, mines, shipyards, banks, transportation and food supplies all foreshadowed the impact of industrialization in, and subsequent conflicts. It remains the deadliest war in. From 1861 to 1865, it is estimated that 620,000 to 750,000 soldiers died, along with an undetermined number of. By one estimate, the war claimed the lives of 10 percent of all Northern males 20–45 years old, and 30 percent of all Southern white males aged 18–40. Causes of secession.

Main articles: and The causes of secession were complex and have been controversial since the war began, but most academic scholars identify slavery as a central cause of the war. Bradford wrote that the issue has been further complicated by, who have tried to offer a variety of reasons for the war.

Slavery was the central source of escalating political tension in the. The was determined to prevent any spread of slavery, and many Southern leaders had threatened secession if the Republican candidate,, won the. After Lincoln won, many Southern leaders felt that disunion was their only option, fearing that the loss of representation would hamper their ability to promote pro-slavery acts and policies. Territories Slavery was a major cause of disunion. Although there were opposing views even in the Union States, most northern soldiers were largely indifferent on the subject of slavery, while Confederates fought the war largely to protect a southern society of which slavery was an integral part. From the anti-slavery perspective, the issue was primarily about whether the system of slavery was an anachronistic evil that was incompatible with.

The strategy of the anti-slavery forces was containment—to stop the expansion and thus put slavery on a path to gradual extinction. The slave-holding interests in the South denounced this strategy as infringing upon their Constitutional rights. Southern whites believed that the emancipation of slaves would destroy the South's economy, due to the large amount of capital invested in slaves and fears of integrating the ex-slave black population. Slavery was illegal in much of the North, having been outlawed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It was also fading in the border states and in Southern cities, but it was expanding in the highly profitable cotton districts of the rural South and Southwest. Subsequent writers on the American Civil War looked to several factors explaining the geographic divide. Sectionalism refers to the different economies, social structure, customs and political values of the North and South.

It increased steadily between 1800 and 1860 as the North, which phased slavery out of existence, industrialized, urbanized, and built prosperous farms, while the deep South concentrated on plantation agriculture based on slave labor, together with for poor. In the 1840s and 50s, the issue of accepting slavery (in the guise of rejecting slave-owning bishops and missionaries) split the nation's largest religious denominations (the Methodist, Baptist and Presbyterian churches) into separate Northern and Southern denominations. Historians have debated whether economic differences between the industrial Northeast and the agricultural South helped cause the war. Most historians now disagree with the of historian in the 1920s and emphasize that Northern and Southern economies were largely complementary. While socially different, the sections economically benefited each other.

The largest cotton exporting port for New England and Great Britain textile mills, shipping Mississippi River Valley goods from North, South and Border states Protectionism Historically, southern slave-holding states, because of their low cost manual labor, had little perceived need for mechanization, and supported having the right to sell cotton and purchase manufactured goods from any nation. Northern states, which had heavily invested in their still-nascent manufacturing, could not compete with the full-fledged industries of Europe in offering high prices for cotton imported from the South and low prices for manufactured exports in return. Thus, northern manufacturing interests supported tariffs and protectionism while southern planters demanded free trade.

The Democrats in Congress, controlled by Southerners, wrote the tariff laws in the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s, and kept reducing rates so that the 1857 rates were the lowest since 1816. The Whigs and Republicans complained because they favored high tariffs to stimulate industrial growth, and Republicans called for an increase in tariffs in the 1860 election. The increases were only enacted in 1861 after Southerners resigned their seats in Congress.

The tariff issue was and is sometimes cited–long after the war–by historians and apologists. In 1860–61 none of the groups that proposed compromises to head off secession raised the tariff issue. Pamphleteers North and South rarely mentioned the tariff, and when some did, for instance, and, they were generally writing for a foreign audience. States' rights The South argued that each state had the right to secede—leave the Union—at any time, that the Constitution was a 'compact' or agreement among the states. Northerners (including President Buchanan) rejected that notion as opposed to the will of the Founding Fathers who said they were setting up a perpetual union. Historian James McPherson writes concerning states' rights and other non-slavery explanations: While one or more of these interpretations remain popular among the and other Southern heritage groups, few professional historians now subscribe to them.

Of all these interpretations, the states'-rights argument is perhaps the weakest. It fails to ask the question, states' rights for what purpose? States' rights, or sovereignty, was always more a means than an end, an instrument to achieve a certain goal more than a principle. Territorial crisis.

Further information: Between 1803 and 1854, the United States achieved a vast expansion of territory through purchase, negotiation, and conquest. At first, the new states carved out of these territories entering the union were apportioned equally between slave and free states. It was over territories west of the Mississippi that the proslavery and antislavery forces collided. With the conquest of northern west to in 1848, slaveholding interests looked forward to expanding into these lands and perhaps Cuba and Central America as well. Northern 'free soil' interests vigorously sought to curtail any further expansion of slave territory. The over California balanced a free soil state with stronger fugitive slave laws for a political settlement after four years of strife in the 1840s.

But the states admitted following California were all free: Minnesota (1858), Oregon (1859) and Kansas (1861). In the southern states the question of the territorial expansion of slavery westward again became explosive. Both the South and the North drew the same conclusion: 'The power to decide the question of slavery for the territories was the power to determine the future of slavery itself.' By 1860, four doctrines had emerged to answer the question of federal control in the territories, and they all claimed they were sanctioned by the Constitution, implicitly or explicitly. The first of these 'conservative' theories, represented by the, argued that the apportionment of territory north for free soil and south for slavery should become a Constitutional mandate. The of 1860 was an expression of this view. The second doctrine of Congressional preeminence, championed by Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party, insisted that the Constitution did not bind legislators to a policy of balance—that slavery could be excluded in a territory as it was done in the of 1787 at the discretion of Congress, thus Congress could restrict human bondage, but never establish it.

The announced this position in 1846. Senator proclaimed the doctrine of territorial or 'popular' sovereignty—which asserted that the settlers in a territory had the same rights as states in the Union to establish or disestablish slavery as a purely local matter. The of 1854 legislated this doctrine. In Kansas Territory, years of and political conflict erupted; the congressional House of Representatives voted to admit Kansas as a free state in early 1860, but its admission in the Senate was delayed until January 1861, after the 1860 elections when southern senators began to leave.

The fourth theory was advocated by Mississippi Senator, one of state sovereignty ('states' rights'), also known as the 'Calhoun doctrine', named after the South Carolinian political theorist and statesman. Rejecting the arguments for federal authority or self-government, state sovereignty would empower states to promote the expansion of slavery as part of the Federal Union under the U.S. 'States' rights' was an ideology formulated and applied as a means of advancing slave state interests through federal authority. As historian Thomas L. Krannawitter points out, the 'Southern demand for federal slave protection represented a demand for an unprecedented expansion of federal power.'

These four doctrines comprised the major ideologies presented to the American public on the matters of slavery, the territories and the U.S. Constitution prior to the 1860 presidential election.

National elections Beginning in the and accelerating after the, the people of the United States grew in the sense that their country was a national republic based on the belief that all people had inalienable political liberty and personal rights which could serve as an important example to the rest of the world. Previous regional independence movements such as the in the, the division and redivision of the Latin American political map, and the British-French leading to an interest in redrawing Europe along cultural differences, all conspired to make for a time of upheaval and uncertainty about the basis of the nation-state. In the world of 19th century self-made Americans, growing in prosperity, population and expanding westward, 'freedom' could mean personal liberty or property rights. The unresolved difference would cause failure—first in their political institutions, then in their civil life together. Nationalism and honor. President (1861–1865) Nationalism was a powerful force in the early 19th century, with famous spokesmen such as and.

While practically all Northerners supported the Union, Southerners were split between those loyal to the entire United States (called 'unionists') and those loyal primarily to the southern region and then the Confederacy. Said of the latter group, A great slave society.

Had grown up and miraculously flourished in the heart of a thoroughly bourgeois and partly puritanical republic. It had renounced its bourgeois origins and elaborated and painfully rationalized its institutional, legal, metaphysical, and religious defenses. When the crisis came it chose to fight. It proved to be the death struggle of a society, which went down in ruins.

Perceived insults to Southern collective honor included the enormous popularity of (1852) and the actions of abolitionist in trying to incite a in 1859. While the South moved towards a Southern nationalism, leaders in the North were also becoming more nationally minded, and they rejected any notion of splitting the Union. The Republican national electoral platform of 1860 warned that Republicans regarded disunion as and would not tolerate it: 'We denounce those threats of disunion.

As denying the vital principles of a free government, and as an avowal of contemplated treason, which it is the imperative duty of an indignant people sternly to rebuke and forever silence.' The South ignored the warnings: Southerners did not realize how ardently the North would fight to hold the Union together. Lincoln's election. Main article: The election of Abraham Lincoln in November 1860 was the final trigger for secession. Efforts at compromise, including the ' and the ', failed. Southern leaders feared that Lincoln would stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extinction.

The slave states, which had already become a minority in the House of Representatives, were now facing a future as a perpetual minority in the Senate and Electoral College against an increasingly powerful North. Before Lincoln took office in March 1861, seven slave states had declared their secession and joined to form the Confederacy. According to Lincoln, the people of the United States had shown that they can be successful in establishing and administering a republic, but a third challenge faced the nation, maintaining the republic, based on the people's vote. The people must now show: '... Successful maintenance [of the Republic] against a formidable internal attempt to overthrow it. It is now for them to demonstrate to the world that those who can fairly carry an election can also suppress a rebellion; that ballots are the rightful and peaceful successors of bullets; and that when ballots have fairly and constitutionally decided, there can be no successful appeal back to bullets; that there can be no successful appeal, except to ballots themselves, at succeeding elections.

Such will be a great lesson of peace; teaching men that what they cannot take by an election, neither can they take it by a war...' Outbreak of the war Secession crisis. The first published imprint of secession, a issued by the, December 20, 1860 The election of Lincoln caused the legislature of South Carolina to call a state convention to consider secession. Prior to the war, South Carolina did more than any other Southern state to advance the notion that a state had the right to federal laws and, even, secede from the United States. The convention summoned unanimously voted to secede on December 20, 1860, and adopted the '. It argued for states' rights for slave owners in the South, but contained a complaint about states' rights in the North in the form of opposition to the, claiming that Northern states were not fulfilling their federal obligations under the Constitution. The 'cotton states' of Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed suit, seceding in January and February 1861.

Among the ordinances of secession passed by the individual states, those of three—Texas, Alabama, and Virginia—specifically mentioned the plight of the 'slaveholding states' at the hands of northern abolitionists. The rest make no mention of the slavery issue, and are often brief announcements of the dissolution of ties by the legislatures. However, at least four states—South Carolina, Mississippi, Georgia, and Texas —also passed lengthy and detailed explanations of their causes for secession, all of which laid the blame squarely on the movement to abolish slavery and that movement's influence over the politics of the northern states. The southern states believed slaveholding was a constitutional right because of the of the Constitution. These states agreed to form a new federal government, the, on February 4, 1861. They took control of federal forts and other properties within their boundaries with little resistance from outgoing President, whose term ended on March 4, 1861.

Buchanan said that the was proof that the South had no reason for secession, and that the Union '. was intended to be perpetual,' but that 'The power by force of arms to compel a State to remain in the Union' was not among the '. enumerated powers granted to Congress.' One quarter of the U.S. Army—the entire garrison in Texas—was surrendered in February 1861 to state forces by its commanding general,, who then joined the Confederacy. As Southerners resigned their seats in the Senate and the House, Republicans were able to pass bills for projects that had been blocked by Southern Senators before the war, including the, land grant colleges (the ), a, a transcontinental railroad (the ), the and the authorization of by the Legal Tender Act of 1862. The introduced the to help finance the war.

On December 18, 1860, the was proposed to re-establish the line by constitutionally banning slavery in territories to the north of the line while guaranteeing it to the south. The adoption of this compromise likely would have prevented the secession of every southern state apart from South Carolina, but Lincoln and the Republicans rejected it. It was then proposed to hold a national referendum on the compromise. The Republicans again rejected the idea, although a majority of both Northerners and Southerners would have voted in favor of it.

A pre-war February met in Washington, proposing a solution similar to that of the Crittenden compromise, it was rejected by Congress. The Republicans proposed an to not interfere with slavery where it existed but the South regarded it as insufficient. Nonetheless, the remaining eight slave states rejected pleas to join the Confederacy following a two-to-one no-vote in Virginia's First Secessionist Convention on April 4, 1861. (1861–1865) On March 4, 1861, was sworn in as President.

In his, he argued that the Constitution was a than the earlier, that it was a binding contract, and called any secession 'legally void'. He had no intent to invade Southern states, nor did he intend to end slavery where it existed, but said that he would use force to maintain possession of Federal property.

The government would make no move to recover post offices, and if resisted, mail delivery would end at state lines. Where popular conditions did not allow peaceful enforcement of Federal law, U.S. Marshals and Judges would be withdrawn. No mention was made of bullion lost from U.S. Mints in Louisiana, Georgia and North Carolina. In Lincoln's inaugural address, he stated that it would be U.S.

Policy to only collect import duties at its ports; there could be no serious injury to the South to justify armed revolution during his administration. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union, famously calling on 'the mystic chords of memory' binding the two regions.

The South sent delegations to Washington and offered to pay for the federal properties and enter into a peace treaty with the United States. Lincoln rejected any negotiations with Confederate agents because he claimed the Confederacy was not a legitimate government, and that making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign government.

Secretary of State who at that time saw himself as the real governor or 'prime minister' behind the throne of the inexperienced Lincoln, engaged in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed. President Lincoln was determined to hold all remaining Union-occupied forts in the Confederacy, in Virginia, in Florida,,, and, and in the cockpit of secession, Charleston, South Carolina's.

Battle of Fort Sumter. Mass meeting April 20, 1861, to support the Government at Washington's equestrian statue in NYC Fort Sumter was located in the middle of the harbor of, South Carolina, where the U.S. Fort's garrison had withdrawn to avoid incidents with local militias in the streets of the city. Unlike Buchanan, who allowed commanders to relinquish possession to avoid bloodshed, Lincoln required Maj.

Anderson to hold on until fired upon. Jefferson Davis ordered the surrender of the fort.

Anderson gave a conditional reply that the Confederate government rejected, and Davis ordered to attack the fort before a relief expedition could arrive. Troops under Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12–13, forcing its capitulation. The attack on Fort Sumter rallied the North to the defense of American nationalism.

Historian said: The thunderclap of Sumter produced a startling crystallization of Northern sentiment.. Anger swept the land.

From every side came news of mass meetings, speeches, resolutions, tenders of business support, the muster of companies and regiments, the determined action of governors and legislatures.' However, much of the North's attitude was based on the false belief that only a minority of Southerners were actually in favor of secession and that there were large numbers of southern Unionists that could be counted on. Had Northerners realized that most Southerners really did favor secession, they might have hesitated at attempting the enormous task of conquering a united South. Lincoln called on all the states to send forces to recapture the fort and other federal properties.

With the scale of the rebellion apparently small so far, Lincoln called for only for 90 days. The governor of Massachusetts had state regiments on trains headed south the next day. In western Missouri, local secessionists seized. On May 3, 1861, Lincoln called for an additional 42,000 volunteers for a period of three years. Four states in the middle and upper South had repeatedly rejected Confederate overtures, but now,,, and refused to send forces against their neighbors, declared their secession, and joined the Confederacy. To reward Virginia, the Confederate capital was moved to.

Main article:,,, and were slave states that were opposed to both secession and coercing the South. Then joined them as an additional border state after it separated from and became a state of the in 1863. Maryland's territory surrounded the United States' capital of and could cut it off from the North. It had numerous anti-Lincoln officials who tolerated anti-army and the burning of bridges, both aimed at hindering the passage of troops to the South. Maryland's legislature voted overwhelmingly (53–13) to stay in the Union, but also rejected hostilities with its southern neighbors, voting to close Maryland's rail lines to prevent them from being used for war. Lincoln responded by establishing, and unilaterally suspending, in Maryland, along with sending in militia units from the North. Lincoln rapidly took control of Maryland and the District of Columbia, by seizing many prominent figures, including arresting 1/3 of the members of the on the day it reconvened.

All were held without trial, ignoring a ruling by the Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, a Maryland native, that only Congress (and not the president) could suspend habeas corpus (). Indeed, federal troops imprisoned a prominent Baltimore newspaper editor,, Francis Scott Key's grandson, after he criticized Lincoln in an editorial for ignoring the Supreme Court Chief Justice's ruling. In Missouri, an on secession voted decisively to remain within the Union.

When pro-Confederate Governor called out the state militia, it was attacked by federal forces under General, who chased the governor and the rest of the State Guard to the southwestern corner of the state. ( See also: ). In the resulting vacuum, the convention on secession reconvened and took power as the Unionist provisional government of Missouri. Kentucky did not secede; for a time, it declared itself neutral. When Confederate forces entered the state in September 1861, neutrality ended and the state reaffirmed its Union status, while trying to maintain slavery. During a brief invasion by Confederate forces, Confederate sympathizers organized a secession convention, inaugurated a governor, and gained recognition from the Confederacy. The rebel government soon went into exile and never controlled Kentucky.

After Virginia's secession, a in asked 48 counties to vote on an ordinance to create a new state on October 24, 1861. A voter turnout of 34 percent approved the statehood bill (96 percent approving). The inclusion of 24 secessionist counties in the state and the ensuing guerrilla war engaged about 40,000 Federal troops for much of the war.

Congress admitted to the Union on June 20, 1863. West Virginia provided about 20,000–22,000 soldiers to both the Confederacy and the Union. A Unionist secession attempt occurred in, but was suppressed by the Confederacy, which arrested over 3,000 men suspected of being loyal to the Union.

They were held without trial. Map of Civil War battles by theater and year The Civil War was a contest marked by the ferocity and frequency of battle. Over four years, 237 named battles were fought, as were many more minor actions and skirmishes, which were often characterized by their bitter intensity and high casualties. In his book The American Civil War, John Keegan writes that 'The American Civil War was to prove one of the most ferocious wars ever fought'. Without geographic objectives, the only target for each side was the enemy's soldier. Mobilization As the first seven states began organizing a Confederacy in Montgomery, the entire U.S.

Army numbered 16,000. However, Northern governors had begun to mobilize their militias. The Confederate Congress authorized the new nation up to 100,000 troops sent by governors as early as February. By May, Jefferson Davis was pushing for 100,000 men under arms for one year or the duration, and that was answered in kind by the U.S. In the first year of the war, both sides had far more volunteers than they could effectively train and equip. After the initial enthusiasm faded, reliance on the cohort of young men who came of age every year and wanted to join was not enough.

Both sides used a draft law——as a device to encourage or force volunteering; relatively few were actually drafted and served. The Confederacy passed a draft law in April 1862 for young men aged 18 to 35; overseers of slaves, government officials, and clergymen were exempt. Congress followed in July, authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers.

European joined the in large numbers, including 177,000 born in Germany and 144,000 born in Ireland. When the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect in January 1863, ex-slaves were energetically recruited by the states, and used to meet the state quotas. States and local communities offered higher and higher cash bonuses for white volunteers.

Congress tightened the law in March 1863. Men selected in the draft could provide substitutes or, until mid-1864, pay commutation money. Many eligibles pooled their money to cover the cost of anyone drafted. Families used the substitute provision to select which man should go into the army and which should stay home.

There was much evasion and overt resistance to the draft, especially in Catholic areas. The great involved Irish immigrants who had been signed up as citizens to swell the vote of the, not realizing it made them liable for the draft. Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who had their personal services conscripted. In both the North and South, the draft laws were highly unpopular. In the North, some 120,000 men evaded conscription, many of them fleeing to Canada, and another 280,000 soldiers deserted during the war. At least 100,000 Southerners deserted, or about 10 percent.

In the South, many men deserted temporarily to take care of their distressed families, then returned to their units. In the North, 'bounty jumpers' enlisted to get the generous bonus, deserted, then went back to a second recruiting station under a different name to sign up again for a second bonus; 141 were caught and executed. Rioters attacking a building during the of 1863 From a tiny frontier force in 1860, the Union and Confederate armies had grown into the 'largest and most efficient armies in the world' within a few years. European observers at the time dismissed them as amateur and unprofessional, but British historian 's assessment is that each outmatched the French, Prussian and Russian armies of the time, and but for the Atlantic, would have threatened any of them with defeat. Motivation Perman and Taylor (2010) say that historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight, suffer and die over four years: Some historians emphasize that Civil War soldiers were driven by political ideology, holding firm beliefs about the importance of liberty, Union, or state rights, or about the need to protect or to destroy slavery.

Others point to less overtly political reasons to fight, such as the defense of one's home and family, or the honor and brotherhood to be preserved when fighting alongside other men. Most historians agree that no matter what a soldier thought about when he went into the war, the experience of combat affected him profoundly and sometimes altered his reasons for continuing the fight. Main article: At the start of the civil war, a system of paroles operated.

Captives agreed not to fight until they were officially exchanged. Meanwhile, they were held in camps run by their own army where they were paid but not allowed to perform any military duties.

The system of exchanges collapsed in 1863 when the Confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners. After that, about 56,000 of the 409,000 POWs died in prisons during the war, accounting for nearly 10 percent of the conflict's fatalities. Naval war The small of 1861 was rapidly enlarged to 6,000 officers and 45,000 men in 1865, with 671 vessels, having a tonnage of 510,396. Its mission was to blockade Confederate ports, take control of the river system, defend against Confederate raiders on the high seas, and be ready for a possible war with the British. Meanwhile, the main riverine war was fought in the West, where a series of major rivers gave access to the Confederate heartland, if the U.S. Navy could take control.

In the East, the Navy supplied and moved army forces about, and occasionally shelled Confederate installations. Union blockade. General Scott's ' 1861. Tightening naval blockade, forcing rebels out of Missouri along the Mississippi River, Kentucky Unionists sit on the fence, idled cotton industry illustrated in Georgia. By early 1861, General had devised the to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible.

Scott argued that a Union blockade of the main ports would weaken the Confederate economy. Lincoln adopted parts of the plan, but he overruled Scott's caution about 90-day volunteers. Public opinion, however, demanded an immediate attack by the army to capture Richmond. In April 1861, Lincoln announced the Union blockade of all Southern ports; commercial ships could not get insurance and regular traffic ended.

The South blundered in embargoing cotton exports in 1861 before the blockade was effective; by the time they realized the mistake, it was too late. 'King Cotton' was dead, as the South could export less than 10 percent of its cotton. The blockade shut down the ten Confederate seaports with railheads that moved almost all the cotton, especially New Orleans, Mobile, and Charleston. By June 1861, warships were stationed off the principal Southern ports, and a year later nearly 300 ships were in service. Modern navy evolves The Civil War occurred during the early stages of the industrial revolution and subsequently many naval innovations emerged during this time, most notably the advent of the. It began when the Confederacy, knowing they had to meet or match the Union's naval superiority, responded to the Union blockade by building or converting more than 130 vessels, including twenty-six ironclads and floating batteries. Only half of these saw active service.

Many were equipped with ram bows, creating 'ram fever' among Union squadrons wherever they threatened. But in the face of overwhelming Union superiority and the Union's own ironclad warships, they were unsuccessful. The Confederacy experimented with a, which did not work well, and with building an ironclad ship, the, which was based on rebuilding a sunken Union ship, the. On its first foray on March 8, 1862, the Virginia inflicted significant damage to the Union's wooden fleet, but the next day the first Union ironclad, the, arrived to challenge it in the. The resulting three hour was a draw, but it marked the worldwide transition to ironclad warships. Not long after the battle the Confederacy was forced to scuttle the Virginia to prevent its capture, while the Union built many copies of the Monitor.

Lacking the technology and infrastructure to build effective warships, the Confederacy attempted to obtain warships from Britain. Blockade runners.

Main article: British investors built small, fast, steam-driven that traded arms and luxuries brought in from Britain through Bermuda, Cuba, and the Bahamas in return for high-priced cotton. Many of the ships were designed for speed and were so small that only a small amount of cotton went out. When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner, the ship and cargo were condemned as a and sold, with the proceeds given to the Navy sailors; the captured crewmen were mostly British and they were simply released.

The Southern economy nearly collapsed during the war. There were multiple reasons for this: the severe deterioration of food supplies, especially in cities, the failure of Southern railroads, the loss of control of the main rivers, foraging by Northern armies, and the seizure of animals and crops by Confederate armies.

Most historians agree that the blockade was a major factor in ruining the Confederate economy; however, Wise argues that the blockade runners provided just enough of a lifeline to allow Lee to continue fighting for additional months, thanks to fresh supplies of 400,000 rifles, lead, blankets, and boots that the homefront economy could no longer supply. Gunline of nine Union ironclads. Off Charleston. Continuous blockade of all major ports was sustained by North's overwhelming war production.

Economic impact Surdam argues that the blockade was a powerful weapon that eventually ruined the Southern economy, at the cost of few lives in combat. Practically, the entire Confederate cotton crop was useless (although it was sold to Union traders), costing the Confederacy its main source of income.

Critical imports were scarce and the coastal trade was largely ended as well. The measure of the blockade's success was not the few ships that slipped through, but the thousands that never tried it. Merchant ships owned in Europe could not get insurance and were too slow to evade the blockade; they simply stopped calling at Confederate ports. To fight an offensive war, the Confederacy purchased ships from Britain, converted them to warships, and raided American merchant ships in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Insurance rates skyrocketed and the American flag virtually disappeared from international waters. However, the same ships were reflagged with European flags and continued unmolested.

After the war, the U.S. Demanded that Britain pay for the damage done, and Britain paid the U.S.

$15 million in 1871. Rivers The 1862 Union strategy called for simultaneous advances along four axes: • McClellan would lead the main thrust in Virginia towards Richmond.

• Ohio forces would advance through Kentucky into Tennessee. • The Missouri Department would drive south along the Mississippi River. • The westernmost attack would originate from Kansas.

Clashes on the rivers were melees of,, and rams, complicated by torpedoes and. Used river transport and gunboats of the Western Flotilla to threaten the Confederacy's 'Gibraltar of the West' at Columbus, Kentucky. Though rebuffed at Belmont, Grant cut off Columbus. The Confederates, lacking their own gunboats, were forced to retreat and the Union took control of western Kentucky in March 1862. In addition to ocean-going warships coming up the Mississippi, the Union Navy used timberclads, tinclads, and armored gunboats. Shipyards at Cairo, Illinois, and St.

Louis built new boats or modified steamboats for action. They took control of the Red, Tennessee, Cumberland, Mississippi, and Ohio rivers after victories at (February 6, 1862) and (February 11 to 16, 1862), and supplied Grant's forces as he moved into Tennessee. At (Pittsburg Landing), in Tennessee in April 1862, the Confederates made a surprise attack that pushed Union forces against the river as night fell. Overnight, the Navy landed additional reinforcements, and Grant counter-attacked. Grant and the Union won a decisive victory—the first battle with the high casualty rates that would repeat over and over. On June 6, 1862, and became a key base for further advances south along the Mississippi River.

On April 24, 1862, U.S. Naval forces under ran past Confederate defenses south of New Orleans. Confederate forces abandoned the city, giving the Union a critical anchor in the deep South. Naval forces assisted Grant in the long, complex that resulted in the Confederates surrendering at in July 1863, and in the Union fully controlling the Mississippi River soon after. Eastern theater. Right: Confederate ironclads at and New Orleans dispersed blockade, until Union ironclads could defeat them. Took command of the Union on July 26 (he was briefly general-in-chief of all the Union armies, but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj.

), and the war began in earnest in 1862. Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations, McClellan attacked Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the between the and, southeast of Richmond. Although McClellan's army reached the gates of Richmond in the, halted his advance at the, then General and top subordinates and Stonewall Jackson defeated McClellan in the and forced his retreat. The, which included the, ended in yet another victory for the South.

McClellan resisted General-in-Chief Halleck's orders to send reinforcements to Union, which made it easier for Lee's Confederates to defeat twice the number of combined enemy troops. Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North. General Lee led 45,000 men of the across the into Maryland on September 5. Lincoln then restored Pope's troops to McClellan. McClellan and Lee fought at the near, Maryland, on September 17, 1862, the bloodiest single day in United States military history. Lee's army, checked at last, returned to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it.

Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee's invasion of the North and provided an opportunity for Lincoln to announce his. Union forces performing a bayonet charge, 1862 When the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Burnside was soon defeated at the on December 13, 1862, when more than 12,000 Union soldiers were killed or wounded during repeated futile frontal assaults against Marye's Heights. After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one, he was humiliated in the in May 1863. Stonewall Jackson was shot in the arm by accidental friendly fire during the battle and subsequently died of complications.

Hooker was replaced by Maj. During Lee's second invasion of the North, in June. Meade defeated Lee at the (July 1 to 3, 1863). This was the bloodiest battle of the war, and has been called the war's. On July 3 is often considered the because it signaled the collapse of serious Confederate threats of victory. Lee's army suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade's 23,000).

However, Lincoln was angry that Meade failed to intercept Lee's retreat, and after Meade's inconclusive fall campaign, Lincoln turned to the Western Theater for new leadership. At the same time, the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg surrendered, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River, permanently isolating the western Confederacy, and producing the new leader Lincoln needed,. Western theater. Union ironclads forced passage, sank Confederate fleet, destroyed batteries, held docks for Army. The was opened to Union traffic to the southern border of Tennessee with the taking of and, Missouri, and then. In April 1862, the captured New Orleans, which allowed Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi.

Only the fortress city of, Mississippi, prevented Union control of the entire river. General 's second Confederate invasion of Kentucky ended with a meaningless victory over Maj. At the, although Bragg was forced to end his attempt at invading Kentucky and retreat due to lack of support for the Confederacy in that state. Bragg was narrowly defeated by Maj.

The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the. Bragg, reinforced by Lt. 's corps (from Lee's army in the east), defeated Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of Maj.

Rosecrans retreated to, which Bragg then besieged. The Union's key strategist and tactician in the West was, who won victories at Forts and (by which the Union seized control of the and Rivers); the; and the, which cemented Union control of the Mississippi River and is considered one of the of the war. Grant marched to the relief of Rosecrans and defeated Bragg at the, driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening a route to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy. Right: secured St. Louis docks and arsenal, led Union forces to expel Missouri Confederate forces and government. Extensive characterized the trans-Mississippi region, as the Confederacy lacked the troops and the logistics to support regular armies that could challenge Union control. Roving Confederate bands such as terrorized the countryside, striking both military installations and civilian settlements.

The 'Sons of Liberty' and 'Order of the American Knights' attacked pro-Union people, elected officeholders, and unarmed uniformed soldiers. These partisans could not be entirely driven out of the state of Missouri until an entire regular Union infantry division was engaged. By 1864, these violent activities harmed the nationwide anti-war movement organizing against the re-election of Lincoln. Missouri not only stayed in the Union, Lincoln took 70 percent of the vote for re-election. Numerous small-scale military actions south and west of Missouri sought to control and for the Union.

The Union repulsed Confederate incursions into New Mexico in 1862, and the exiled Arizona government withdrew into Texas. In the Indian Territory, civil war broke out within tribes. About 12,000 Indian warriors fought for the Confederacy, and smaller numbers for the Union. The most prominent Cherokee was Brigadier General, the last Confederate general to surrender.

After the fall of in July 1863, General in Texas was informed by Jefferson Davis that he could expect no further help from east of the Mississippi River. Although he lacked resources to beat Union armies, he built up a formidable arsenal at Tyler, along with his own Kirby Smithdom economy, a virtual 'independent fiefdom' in Texas, including railroad construction and international smuggling. The Union in turn did not directly engage him. Its 1864 to take Shreveport, Louisiana was a failure and Texas remained in Confederate hands throughout the war. End of the war Conquest of Virginia At the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies. Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac, and put Maj.

In command of most of the western armies. Grant understood the concept of and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would end the war. This was total war not in killing civilians but rather in taking provisions and forage and destroying homes, farms, and railroads, that Grant said 'would otherwise have gone to the support of secession and rebellion. This policy I believe exercised a material influence in hastening the end.' Grant devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the entire Confederacy from multiple directions. Generals and were ordered to move against Lee near Richmond, General (and later ) were to, General Sherman was to capture Atlanta and march to the sea (the Atlantic Ocean), Generals and were to operate against railroad supply lines in, and Maj.

Was to capture, Alabama. By portrays,,, and discussing plans for the last weeks of the Civil War aboard the steamer in March 1865. Grant's army set out on the with the goal of drawing Lee into a defense of Richmond, where they would attempt to pin down and destroy the Confederate army.

The Union army first attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles, notably at the,, and. These battles resulted in heavy losses on both sides, and forced Lee's Confederates to fall back repeatedly. An attempt to outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped inside the river bend. Each battle resulted in setbacks for the Union that mirrored what they had suffered under prior generals, though unlike those prior generals, Grant fought on rather than retreat. Grant was tenacious and kept pressing Lee's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond. While Lee was preparing for an attack on Richmond, Grant unexpectedly turned south to cross the and began the protracted, where the two armies engaged in for over nine months. Grant finally found a commander, General, aggressive enough to prevail in the.

Sheridan was initially repelled at the by former U.S. Vice President and Confederate Gen.. The Battle of New Market was the Confederacy's last major victory of the war.

After redoubling his efforts, Sheridan defeated Maj. In a series of battles, including a final decisive defeat at the. Sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the, a strategy similar to the tactics Sherman later employed in Georgia. Meanwhile, Sherman maneuvered from Chattanooga to Atlanta, defeating Confederate Generals and along the way.

The on September 2, 1864, guaranteed the reelection of Lincoln as president. Hood left the Atlanta area to swing around and menace Sherman's supply lines and invade Tennessee in the. Defeated Hood at the, and dealt Hood a massive defeat at the, effectively destroying Hood's army. Leaving Atlanta, and his base of supplies, Sherman's army marched with an unknown destination, laying waste to about 20 percent of the farms in Georgia in his '.

He reached the Atlantic Ocean at, Georgia in December 1864. Sherman's army was followed by thousands of freed slaves; there were no major battles along the March. Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina to approach the Confederate Virginia lines from the south, increasing the pressure on Lee's army. Lee's army, thinned by desertion and casualties, was now much smaller than Grant's. One last Confederate attempt to break the Union hold on Petersburg failed at the decisive (sometimes called 'the of the Confederacy') on April 1. This meant that the Union now controlled the entire perimeter surrounding Richmond-Petersburg, completely cutting it off from the Confederacy. Realizing that the capital was now lost, Lee decided to evacuate his army.

The Confederate capital fell to the, composed of black troops. The remaining Confederate units fled west after a defeat. Confederacy surrenders.

Main article: Initially, Lee did not intend to surrender, but planned to regroup at the, where supplies were to be waiting, and then continue the war. Grant chased Lee and got in front of him, so that when Lee's army reached Appomattox Court House, they were surrounded. After an initial battle, Lee decided that the fight was now hopeless, and surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia on April 9, 1865, at the. In an untraditional gesture and as a sign of Grant's respect and anticipation of peacefully restoring Confederate states to the Union, Lee was permitted to keep his sword and his horse,.

On April 14, 1865, President Lincoln was by, a Southern sympathizer. Lincoln died early the next morning, and became the president. Meanwhile, Confederate forces across the South surrendered as news of Lee's surrender reached them. On April 26, 1865, General surrendered nearly 90,000 men of the to Major General at the near present-day Durham, North Carolina. It proved to be the largest surrender of Confederate forces, effectively bringing the war to an end. President Johnson officially declared a virtual end to the insurrection on May 9, 1865; President was captured the following day.

On June 2, Kirby Smith officially surrendered his troops in the Trans-Mississippi Department. On June 23, Cherokee leader became the last Confederate General to surrender his forces. Main article: Though the Confederacy hoped that Britain and France would join them against the Union, this was never likely, and so they instead tried to bring Britain and France in as mediators. The Union, under Lincoln and Secretary of State worked to block this, and threatened war if any country officially recognized the existence of the Confederate States of America. In 1861, Southerners voluntarily embargoed cotton shipments, hoping to start an economic depression in Europe that would force Britain to enter the war to get cotton, but this did not work.

Worse, Europe developed other cotton suppliers, which they found superior, hindering the South's recovery after the war. Crewmembers of by the ship's 11-inch (280 mm), circa 1863 proved a failure as Europe had a surplus of cotton, while the 1860–62 crop failures in Europe made the North's grain exports of critical importance. It also helped to turn European opinion further away from the Confederacy. It was said that 'King Corn was more powerful than King Cotton', as U.S. Grain went from a quarter of the British import trade to almost half.

When Britain did face a cotton shortage, it was temporary, being replaced by increased cultivation in Egypt and India. Meanwhile, the war created employment for arms makers, ironworkers, and British ships to transport weapons. Lincoln's foreign policy was deficient in 1861 in terms of appealing to European public opinion. Diplomats had to explain that United States was not committed to the ending of slavery, but instead they repeated legalistic arguments about the unconstitutionality of secession. Confederate spokesmen, on the other hand, were much more successful by ignoring slavery and instead focusing on their struggle for liberty, their commitment to free trade, and the essential role of cotton in the European economy. In addition, the European aristocracy (the dominant factor in every major country) was 'absolutely gleeful in pronouncing the American debacle as proof that the entire experiment in popular government had failed. European government leaders welcomed the fragmentation of the ascendant American Republic.'

To Britain proved particularly adept and convinced Britain not to boldly challenge the blockade. The Confederacy purchased several warships from commercial shipbuilders in Britain (,,,,, and some others). The most famous, the, did considerable damage and led to serious. However, public opinion against slavery created a political liability for politicians in Britain, where the antislavery movement was powerful. War loomed in late 1861 between the U.S. And Britain over the, involving the U.S.

Navy's boarding of the British ship and seizure of two Confederate diplomats. However, London and Washington were able to smooth over the problem after Lincoln released the two. In 1862, the British considered mediation between North and South– though even such an offer would have risked war with the U.S.

British Prime Minister reportedly read three times when deciding on this. The Union victory in the caused them to delay this decision. The over time would reinforce the political liability of supporting the Confederacy. Despite sympathy for the Confederacy, France's own ultimately deterred them from war with the Union. Confederate offers late in the war to end slavery in return for diplomatic recognition were not seriously considered by London or Paris. After 1863, the further distracted the European powers, and ensured that they would remain neutral. Union victory and aftermath Results The, the reasons for its outcome, and even are subjects of lingering contention today.

The North and West grew rich while the once-rich South became poor for a century. The national political power of the slaveowners and rich southerners ended. Historians are less sure about the results of the postwar Reconstruction, especially regarding the second class citizenship of the Freedmen and their poverty. Historians have debated whether the Confederacy could have won the war. Most scholars, including, argue that Confederate victory was at least possible. McPherson argues that the North's advantage in population and resources made Northern victory likely but not guaranteed. He also argues that if the Confederacy had fought using unconventional tactics, they would have more easily been able to hold out long enough to exhaust the Union.

National cemetery in Based on 1860 census figures, 8 percent of all white males aged 13 to 43 died in the war, including 6 percent in the North and 18 percent in the South. About 56,000 soldiers during the War.

An estimated 60,000 men lost limbs in the war. Union army dead, amounting to 15 percent of the over two million who served, was broken down as follows: • 110,070 killed in action (67,000) or died of wounds (43,000).

• 199,790 died of disease (75 percent was due to the war, the remainder would have occurred in civilian life anyway) • 24,866 died in Confederate prison camps • 9,058 killed by accidents or drowning • 15,741 other/unknown deaths • 359,528 total dead In addition there were 4,523 deaths in the Navy (2,112 in battle) and 460 in the Marines (148 in battle). Black troops made up 10 percent of the Union death toll, they amounted to 15 percent of disease deaths but less than 3 percent of those killed in battle. Losses among were high, in the last year and a half and from all reported casualties, approximately 20 percent of all African Americans enrolled in the military lost their lives during the Civil War.: 16 Notably, their mortality rate was significantly higher than white soldiers: [We] find, according to the revised official data, that of the slightly over two millions troops in the United States Volunteers, over 316,000 died (from all causes), or 15.2 percent. Of the 67,000 Regular Army (white) troops, 8.6 percent, or not quite 6,000, died. Of the approximately 180,000, however, over 36,000 died, or 20.5 percent.

In other words, the mortality 'rate' amongst the United States Colored Troops in the Civil War was thirty-five percent greater than that among other troops, notwithstanding the fact that the former were not enrolled until some eighteen months after the fighting began.: 16. Burying Union dead on the battlefield, 1862 Confederate records compiled by historian William F.

Fox list 74,524 killed and died of wounds and 59,292 died of disease. Including Confederate estimates of battle losses where no records exist would bring the Confederate death toll to 94,000 killed and died of wounds. Fox complained, however, that records were incomplete, especially during the last year of the war, and that battlefield reports likely under-counted deaths (many men counted as wounded in battlefield reports subsequently died of their wounds). Livermore, using Fox's data, put the number of Confederate non-combat deaths at 166,000, using the official estimate of Union deaths from disease and accidents and a comparison of Union and Confederate enlistment records, for a total of 260,000 deaths. However, this excludes the 30,000 deaths of Confederate troops in prisons, which would raise the minimum number of deaths to 290,000. The United States National Park Service uses the following figures in its official tally of war losses: Union: 853,838 • 110,100 killed in action • 224,580 disease deaths • 275,154 wounded in action • 211,411 captured (including 30,192 who died as POWs) Confederate: 914,660 • 94,000 killed in action • 164,000 disease deaths • 194,026 wounded in action • 462,634 captured (including 31,000 who died as POWs) While the figures of 360,000 army deaths for the Union and 260,000 for the Confederacy remained commonly cited, they are incomplete. In addition to many Confederate records being missing, partly as a result of Confederate widows not reporting deaths due to being ineligible for benefits, both armies only counted troops who died during their service, and not the tens of thousands who died of wounds or diseases after being discharged.

This often happened only a few days or weeks later., Superintendent of the 1870 Census, used census and Surgeon General data to estimate a minimum of 500,000 Union military deaths and 350,000 Confederate military deaths, for a total death toll of 850,000 soldiers. While Walker's estimates were originally dismissed because of the 1870 Census's undercounting, it was later found that the census was only off by 6.5%, and that the data Walker used would be roughly accurate. Analyzing the number of dead by using census data to calculate the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm suggests that at least 627,000 and at most 888,000, but most likely 761,000 soldiers, died in the war. This would break down to approximately 350,000 Confederate and 411,000 Union military deaths, going by the proportion of Union to Confederate battle losses. Deaths among former slaves has proven much harder to estimate, due to the lack of reliable census data at the time, though they were known to be considerable, as former slaves were set free or escaped in massive numbers in an area where the Union army did not have sufficient shelter, doctors, or food for them. University of Connecticut Professor James Downs states that tens to hundreds of thousands of slaves died during the war from disease, starvation, exposure, or execution at the hands of the Confederates, and that if these deaths are counted in the war's total, the death toll would exceed 1 million.

Losses were far higher than during the recent, which saw roughly thirteen thousand American deaths, including fewer than two thousand killed in battle, between 1846 and 1848. One reason for the high number of battle deaths during the war was the continued use of tactics similar to those of the at the turn of the century, such as. With the advent of more accurate rifled barrels, and (near the end of the war for the ) repeating firearms such as the and the, soldiers were mowed down when standing in lines in the open. This led to the adoption of, a style of fighting that defined much of World War I. The wealth amassed in slaves and slavery for the Confederacy's 3.5 million blacks effectively ended when Union armies arrived; they were nearly all freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves in the border states and those located in some former Confederate territory occupied before the Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or (on December 6, 1865) by the. The war destroyed much of the wealth that had existed in the South.

All accumulated investment Confederate bonds was forfeit; most banks and railroads were bankrupt. Income per person in the South dropped to less than 40 percent of that of the North, a condition that lasted until well into the 20th century. Southern influence in the U.S. Federal government, previously considerable, was greatly diminished until the latter half of the 20th century. The full restoration of the Union was the work of a highly contentious postwar era known as.

Emancipation Slavery as a war issue While not all Southerners saw themselves as fighting to preserve slavery, most of the officers and over a third of the rank and file in 's army had close family ties to slavery. To Northerners, in contrast, the motivation was primarily to preserve the, not to abolish slavery. Abraham Lincoln consistently made preserving the Union the central goal of the war, though he increasingly saw slavery as a crucial issue and made ending it an additional goal. Lincoln's decision to issue the angered both ('Copperheads') and, but energized most Republicans. By warning that free blacks would flood the North, Democrats made gains in the, but they did not gain control of Congress. The Republicans' counterargument that slavery was the mainstay of the enemy steadily gained support, with the Democrats losing decisively in the 1863 elections in the northern state of Ohio when they tried to resurrect anti-black sentiment.

Emancipation Proclamation. Main article: The Emancipation Proclamation enabled African-Americans, both free blacks and escaped slaves, to join the Union Army. About 190,000 volunteered, further enhancing the numerical advantage the Union armies enjoyed over the Confederates, who did not dare emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of fundamentally undermining the legitimacy of slavery.

During the Civil War, sentiment concerning slaves, enslavement and emancipation in the United States was divided. In 1861, Lincoln worried that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states, and that 'to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game.'

And some opposed emancipation, although the latter eventually accepted it as part of needed to save the Union. Right: In 1863, the Union army accepted. Seen here are Black and White teen-aged soldiers. At first, Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War and Generals (in Missouri) and (in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats. Lincoln warned the border states that a more radical type of emancipation would happen if his gradual plan based on compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization was rejected. But only the District of Columbia accepted Lincoln's gradual plan, which was enacted by Congress. When Lincoln told his cabinet about his proposed emancipation proclamation, Seward advised Lincoln to wait for a victory before issuing it, as to do otherwise would seem like 'our last shriek on the retreat'.

Lincoln laid the groundwork for public support in an open letter published in abolitionist Horace Greeley's newspaper. In September 1862, the provided this opportunity, and the subsequent added support for the proclamation. Lincoln issued his preliminary on September 22, 1862, and his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. In his letter to, Lincoln explained his belief that 'If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong. And yet I have never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling. I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me.'

Lincoln's moderate approach succeeded in inducing border states, War Democrats and emancipated slaves to fight for the Union. The Union-controlled border states (Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia) and Union-controlled regions around New Orleans, Norfolk and elsewhere, were not covered by the Emancipation Proclamation. All abolished slavery on their own, except Kentucky and Delaware. Since the Emancipation Proclamation was based on the President's war powers, it only included territory held by Confederates at the time.

However, the Proclamation became a symbol of the Union's growing commitment to add emancipation to the Union's definition of liberty. The Emancipation Proclamation greatly reduced the Confederacy's hope of getting aid from Britain or France. By late 1864, Lincoln was playing a leading role in getting Congress to vote for the, which made emancipation universal and permanent. White In, (1869) the United States Supreme Court ruled that Texas had remained a state ever since it first joined the Union, despite claims that it joined the; the court further held that the did not permit to unilaterally from the United States, and that the ordinances of secession, and all the acts of the legislatures within seceding states intended to give effect to such ordinances, were 'absolutely ', under the constitution. Northern teachers traveled into the South to provide education and training for the newly freed population.

Reconstruction began during the war, with the Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863, and it continued until 1877. It comprised multiple complex methods to resolve the outstanding issues of the war's aftermath, the most important of which were the three ' to the Constitution, which remain in effect to the present time: the 13th (1865), the 14th (1868) and the 15th (1870). From the Union perspective, the goals of Reconstruction were to consolidate the Union victory on the battlefield by reuniting the Union; to guarantee a ' for the ex-Confederate states; and to permanently end slavery—and prevent semi-slavery status.

President Johnson took a lenient approach and saw the achievement of the main war goals as realized in 1865, when each ex-rebel state repudiated secession and ratified the Thirteenth Amendment. Demanded proof that Confederate nationalism was dead and that the slaves were truly free. They came to the fore after the 1866 elections and undid much of Johnson's work. In 1872 the argued that the war goals had been achieved and that Reconstruction should end. They ran a presidential ticket in 1872 but were decisively defeated. In 1874, Democrats, primarily Southern, took control of Congress and opposed any more reconstruction.

The closed with a national consensus that the Civil War had finally ended. With the withdrawal of federal troops, however, whites retook control of every Southern legislature; the period of disenfranchisement and legal segregation was about to begin. Memory and historiography. Right: reunion in New Orleans, 1903 The Civil War is one of the central events in American collective memory. There are innumerable statues, commemorations, books and archival collections.

The memory includes the home front, military affairs, the treatment of soldiers, both living and dead, in the war's aftermath, depictions of the war in literature and art, evaluations of heroes and villains, and considerations of the moral and political lessons of the war. The last theme includes moral evaluations of and slavery, heroism in combat and heroism behind the lines, and the issues of democracy and minority rights, as well as the notion of an ' influencing the world. Professional historians have paid much more attention to the causes of the war, than to the war itself. Military history has largely developed outside academe, leading to a proliferation of solid studies by non-scholars who are thoroughly familiar with the primary sources, pay close attention to battles and campaigns, and write for the large public readership, rather than the small scholarly community. And are among the best-known writers.

Practically every major figure in the war, both North and South, has had a serious biographical study. Deeply religious Southerners saw the hand of God in history, which demonstrated His wrath at their sinfulness, or His rewards for their suffering. Historian Wilson Fallin has examined the sermons of white and black preachers after the War. Southern white preachers said: God had chastised them and given them a special mission—to maintain orthodoxy, strict biblicism, personal piety, and traditional race relations.

Slavery, they insisted, had not been sinful. Rather, emancipation was a historical tragedy and the end of Reconstruction was a clear sign of God's favor. In sharp contrast, Black preachers interpreted the Civil War as: God's gift of freedom. They appreciated opportunities to exercise their independence, to worship in their own way, to affirm their worth and dignity, and to proclaim the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man.

Most of all, they could form their own churches, associations, and conventions. These institutions offered self-help and racial uplift, and provided places where the gospel of liberation could be proclaimed.

As a result, black preachers continued to insist that God would protect and help him; God would be their rock in a stormy land. Main article: Memory of the war in the white South crystallized in the myth of the, shaping regional identity and race relations for generations. Nolan notes that the Lost Cause was expressly 'a rationalization, a cover-up to vindicate the name and fame' of those in rebellion. Some claims revolve around the insignificance of slavery; some appeals highlight cultural differences between North and South; the military conflict by Confederate actors is idealized; in any case, secession was said to be lawful. Nolan argues that the adoption of the Lost Cause perspective facilitated the reunification of the North and the South while excusing the 'virulent racism' of the 19th century, sacrificing African-American progress to a white man's reunification. He also deems the Lost Cause 'a caricature of the truth.

This caricature wholly misrepresents and distorts the facts of the matter' in every instance. Beginning in 1961 the U.S. Post Office released for five famous battles, each issued on the 100th anniversary of the respective battle. Beardian historiography The interpretation of the Civil War presented by and Mary R. Beard in The Rise of American Civilization (1927) was highly influential among historians and the general public until the of the 1950s and 1960s. The Beards downplayed slavery, abolitionism, and issues of morality.

They ignored constitutional issues of states' rights and even ignored American nationalism as the force that finally led to victory in the war. Indeed, the ferocious combat itself was passed over as merely an ephemeral event. Much more important was the calculus of class conflict.

The Beards announced that the Civil War was really: [A] social cataclysm in which the capitalists, laborers, and farmers of the North and West drove from power in the national government the planting aristocracy of the South. The Beards themselves abandoned their interpretation by the 1940s and it became defunct among historians in the 1950s, when scholars shifted to an emphasis on slavery. However, Beardian themes still echo among Lost Cause writers. Battlefield preservation The first efforts at Civil War battlefield preservation and memorialization came during the war itself with the establishment of National Cemeteries at Gettysburg, Mill Springs and Chattanooga. Soldiers began erecting markers on battlefields beginning with the in July 1861, but the oldest surviving monument is the Hazen monument, erected at Stones River near, in the summer of 1863 by soldiers in Union Col. Brigade to mark the spot where they buried their dead in the. In the 1890s, the United States government established five Civil War battlefield parks under the jurisdiction of the War Department, beginning with the creation of the in Tennessee and the in Maryland in 1890.

The was established in 1894, followed by the in 1895 and in 1899. In 1933, these five parks and other national monuments were transferred to the jurisdiction of the National Park Service. The modern Civil War battlefield preservation movement began in 1987 with the founding of the Association for the Preservation of Civil War Sites (APCWS), a grassroots organization created by Civil War historians and others to preserve battlefield land by acquiring it. In 1991, the original Civil War Trust was created in the mold of the Statue of Liberty/Ellis Island Foundation, but failed to attract corporate donors and soon helped manage the disbursement of U.S. Mint Civil War commemorative coin revenues designated for battlefield preservation.

Although the two organizations joined forces on a number of battlefield acquisitions, ongoing conflicts prompted the boards of both organizations to facilitate a merger, which happened in 1999 with the creation of the Civil War Preservation Trust. In 2011, the organization was renamed The.

From 1987 through late 2017, The Trust and its predecessor organizations saved more than 40,000 acres at 126 Civil War battlefields and sites in 21 states. Civil War commemoration.

Right: United Confederate Veterans The American Civil War has been commemorated in many capacities ranging from the reenactment of battles, to statues and memorial halls erected, to films being produced, to stamps and coins with Civil War themes being issued, all of which helped to shape public memory. This varied advent occurred in greater proportions on the 100th and 150th anniversary.

's take on the war has been especially influential in shaping public memory, as seen in such film classics as (1915), (1939), and more recently (2012). Produced a notable PBS series on television titled (1990).

It was digitally remastered and re-released in 2015. Technological significance There were numerous technological innovations during the Civil War that had a great impact on 19th century science. The Civil War was one of the earliest examples of an ', in which technological might is used to achieve military supremacy in a war. New inventions, such as the and, delivered soldiers, supplies and messages at a time when horses were considered to be the fastest way to travel. It was also in this war when countries first used aerial warfare, in the form of reconnaissance, to a significant effect. It saw the first action involving steam-powered in naval warfare history.

Such as the,,, and others, first appeared during the Civil War; they were a revolutionary invention that would soon replace muzzle-loading and single-shot firearms in warfare, as well as the first appearances of rapid-firing weapons and such as the and the. In works of culture and art Literature • (1881) by • (1885) by • The Private History of a Campaign That Failed (1885) by • (1887) by • ' (1890) by • (1936) by • (1952) by • (1982) by • (1989) by Film. • ^ Total number that served • A novel way of calculating casualties by looking at the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm through analysis of census data found that at least 627,000 and at most 888,000 people, but most likely 761,000 people, died through the war. • 'Union population 1864' aggregates 1860 population, average annual immigration 1855–1864, and population governed formerly by CSA per Kenneth Martis source. Contrabands and after the Emancipation Proclamation freedmen, migrating into Union control on the coasts and to the advancing armies, and natural increase are excluded. • 'Slave 1864, CSA' aggregates 1860 slave census of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Texas.

It omits losses from contraband and after the Emancipation Proclamation, freedmen migrating to the Union controlled coastal ports and those joining advancing Union armies, especially in the Mississippi Valley. • At the beginning of the war, some Union commanders thought they were supposed to return escaped slaves to their masters. By 1862, when it became clear that this would be a long war, the question of what to do about slavery became more general. The Southern economy and military effort depended on slave labor. It began to seem unreasonable to protect slavery while blockading Southern commerce and destroying Southern production. As one Congressman put it, the slaves '. cannot be neutral. As laborers, if not as soldiers, they will be allies of the rebels, or of the Union.'

The same Congressman—and his fellow Radical Republicans—put pressure on Lincoln to rapidly emancipate the slaves, whereas moderate Republicans came to accept gradual, compensated emancipation and colonization. Enslaved African Americans did not wait for Lincoln's action before escaping and seeking freedom behind Union lines. From early years of the war, hundreds of thousands of African Americans escaped to Union lines, especially in occupied areas like Nashville, Norfolk and the Hampton Roads region in 1862, Tennessee from 1862 on, the line of Sherman's march, etc. So many African Americans fled to Union lines that commanders created camps and schools for them, where both adults and children learned to read and write. See Catton, Bruce. Never Call Retreat, p. 335. The American Missionary Association entered the war effort by sending teachers south to such contraband camps, for instance establishing schools in Norfolk and on nearby plantations.

In addition, approximately 180,000 or more African-American men served as soldiers and sailors with Union troops. Most of those were escaped slaves. Probably the most prominent of these African-American soldiers is the. • In spite of the South's shortage of soldiers, most Southern leaders—until 1865—opposed enlisting slaves. They used them as laborers to support the war effort. As said, 'If slaves will make good soldiers our whole theory of slavery is wrong.'

Confederate generals and argued in favor of arming blacks late in the war, and was eventually persuaded to support plans for arming slaves to avoid military defeat. The Confederacy surrendered at before this plan could be implemented. The great majority of the 4 million slaves were freed by the Emancipation Proclamation, as Union armies moved south. Historian referred to the exhilaration of the slaves when the Union Army came through: 'As the troops moved up to, the Negroes crowded the roadsides to watch the passing army.

They were 'all frantic with joy, some weeping, some blessing, and some dancing in the exuberance of their emotions.' All of the Negroes were attracted by the pageantry and excitement of the army. Others cheered because they anticipated the freedom to plunder and to do as they pleased now that the Federal troops were there.' Confederates enslaved captured black Union soldiers, and black soldiers especially were shot when trying to surrender at the. See Catton, Bruce. Never Call Retreat, p. 335.

This led to a breakdown of the and the growth of prison camps such as in Georgia, where almost 13,000 Union prisoners of war died of starvation and disease. The New York Times..

May 10, 1865. Retrieved December 23, 2013.

National Park Service. •: Of which 131,000 were in the Navy and Marines, 140,000 were garrison troops and home defense militia, and 427,000 were in the field army.

The Civil War Day by Day: An Almanac, 1861–1865. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971.. •, United States. War Dept 1900. • ^ Fox, William F.

(1889) • ^ February 28, 2014, at the. • 211,411 Union soldiers were captured, and 30,218 died in prison. The ones who died have been excluded to prevent double-counting of casualties. • 462,634 Confederate soldiers were captured and 25,976 died in prison. The ones who died have been excluded to prevent double-counting of casualties.

• ^ (June 13, 2001).. Louisiana State University. Archived from on July 11, 2007. Retrieved October 14, 2007. • Professor James Downs. 'Color blindness in the demographic death toll of the Civil War'. University of Connecticut, April 13th 2012.

'The rough 19th century estimate was that 60,000 former slaves died from the epidemic, but doctors treating black patients often claimed that they were unable to keep accurate records due to demands on their time and the lack of manpower and resources. The surviving records only include the number of black patients whom doctors encountered; tens of thousands of other slaves who died had no contact with army doctors, leaving no records of their deaths.'

60,000 documented plus 'tens of thousands' undocumented gives a minimum of 80,000 slave deaths. •, Associate Professor J.

David Hacker, ' estimates, based on Census data, indicate that the [military] death toll was approximately 750,000, and may have been as high as 850,000' • Professor James Downs. 'Color blindness in the demographic death toll of the Civil War'. Oxford University Press, April 13th 2012.

'An 2 April 2012 New York Times article, 'New Estimate Raises Civil War Death Toll,' reports that a new study ratchets up the death toll from an estimated 650,000 to a staggering 850,000 people. As horrific as this new number is, it fails to reflect the mortality of former slaves during the war. If former slaves were included in this figure, the Civil War death toll would likely be over a million casualties.' • Hutchison, Coleman (2015).. Cambridge University Press. •, America's Civil War • Burnham, Walter Dean. Presidential Ballots, 1836–1892.

Johns Hopkins University Press, 1955, pp. 247–57 • Deborah Gray White, Mia Bay, and Waldo E. Martin, Jr., Freedom on My Mind: A History of African Americans (New York: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2013), 325. Williams, 'Doing Less and Doing More: The President and the Proclamation – Legally, Militarily and Politically,' in Harold Holzer, ed. The Emancipation Proclamation (2006), pp.

Science Daily. September 22, 2011.

Retrieved September 22, 2011. • ^, p. 307–48. •, A Companion to American Military History (2010), vol. • See also Freehling, William W., The Road to Disunion: Secessionists Triumphant 1854–1861, pp.

9–24, and Martis, Kenneth C., The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress, 1789–1989,, pp. 111–115, and Foner, Eric. Politics and Ideology in the Age of the Civil War, (Oxford University Press, 1980), pp. 18–20, 21–24.

• Coates, Ta-Nehisi (22 June 2015).. The Atlantic. Retrieved 21 December 2016. • Gallagher, Gary (February 21, 2011). Sesquicentennial of the Start of the Civil War.

Miller Center of Public Affairs UV: C-Span. Retrieved August 29, 2017. Issues related to the institution of slavery precipitated secession.

It was not states’ rights. It was not a tariff. It was not unhappiness with manner and customs that led to secession and eventually to war.

It was a cluster of issues profoundly dividing the nation along a fault line delineated by the institution of slavery. (March 1, 1994). What They Fought For 1861-1865. Louisiana State University Press. P. 62.. •, James M. (April 3, 1997).

For Cause and Comrades. Oxford University Press. • Gallagher, Gary (February 21, 2011). Sesquicentennial of the Start of the Civil War. Miller Center of Public Affairs UV: C-Span.

Retrieved August 29, 2017. The loyal citizenry initially gave very little thought to emancipation in their quest to save the union. Most loyal citizens, though profoundly prejudice by 21st century standards, embraced emancipation as a tool to punish slave holders, weaken the confederacy, and protect the union from future internal strife. A minority of the white populous invoked moral grounds to attack slavery, though their arguments carried far less popular weight than those presenting emancipation as a military measure necessary to defeat the rebels and restore the Union.

• Eskridge, Larry (January 29, 2011).. Canton Daily Ledger. Canton, Illinois. Archived from the original on February 1, 2011.

Retrieved January 29, 2011. CS1 maint: Unfit url () •, p. 240.

• Chadwick, French Esnor. 8 • Charles S. Sydnor, The Development of Southern Sectionalism 1819–1848 (1948). • Robert Royal Russel, Economic Aspects of Southern Sectionalism, 1840–1861 (1973).

•, p. 648–649. Stampp, The Imperiled Union: Essays on the Background of the Civil War (1981), p. 198; Richard Hofstadter, The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, Parrington (1969). •, p. 145, 151, 505, 512, 554, 557, 684. • Frank Taussig, The Tariff History of the United States (1931), pp. 115–61 •, p. 50–55. • Robert Gray Gunderson, Old Gentleman's Convention: The Washington Peace Conference of 1861. (1961) • Jon L.

Wakelyn (1996).. Of North Carolina Press. • Matthew Fontaine Maury (1861/1967), 'Captain Maury's Letter on American Affairs: A Letter Addressed to Rear-Admiral Fitz Roy, of England', reprinted in Frank Friedel, ed., Union Pamphlets of the Civil War: 1861–1865, Cambridge, MA: Harvard, A John Harvard Library Book, Vol. • John Lothrop Motley (1861/1967), 'The Causes of the American Civil War: A Paper Contributed to ', reprinted in Frank Friedel, ed., Union Pamphlets of the Civil War: 1861–1865, Cambridge, MA: Harvard, A John Harvard Library Book, Vol. • Forrest McDonald, States' Rights and the Union: Imperium in Imperio, 1776–1876 (2002). •, p. 190–93. •, pp. 13–14.

•, pp. 19–21. •, p. 468–69. • Bestor, Arthur. 'The American Civil War as a Constitutional Crisis', in Lawrence Meir Friedman (ed.) 'American Law and the Constitutional Order: Historical Perspectives, p. 231 •, pp. 21–23. Territorial Kansas Online: University of Kansas and Kansas Historical Society.

Retrieved July 10, 2014. Finteg •, p. 21. • Gara, 1964, p. 190 •, p. 24–25.

•, p. 924–50. Vann Woodward (1971), American Counterpoint: Slavery and Racism in the North-South Dialogue, p.

• Bertram Wyatt-Brown, The Shaping of Southern Culture: Honor, Grace, and War, 1760s–1880s (2000). • Avery Craven, The Growth of Southern Nationalism, 1848–1861 (1953). • 'Republican Platform of 1860,' in Kirk H. Porter, and Donald Bruce Johnson, eds. National Party Platforms, 1840–1956, (University of Illinois Press, 1956). • Susan-Mary Grant, North over South: Northern Nationalism and American Identity in the Antebellum Era (2000); Melinda Lawson, Patriot Fires: Forging a New American Nationalism in the Civil War North (2005).

• Jaffa, Harry V. A New Birth of Freedom: Abraham Lincoln and the Coming of the Civil War.

Rowman & Littlefield.. 1 • 2004-06-11 at the. Retrieved November 28, 2012. • The text of. • The text of. Retrieved November 28, 2012.

• The text of. Retrieved November 28, 2012. • The text of. Retrieved November 28, 2012. Retrieved November 28, 2012.

Retrieved July 16, 2013. • Rhodes, James Ford. Volume III (1920) pp.

41–66 • Rhodes, James Ford. Volume III (1920) pp. 147–52 •, pp. 234–266. • ^ Abraham Lincoln, First Inaugural Address, Monday, March 4, 1861. • ^, p. 572–73. • Allan Nevins, The War for the Union: The Improvised War 1861–1862 (1959), pp. • Russell McClintock (2008).

Lincoln and the Decision for War: The Northern Response to Secession. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. Provides details of support across the North..

• Rhodes, James Ford. Volume III (1920) pp. 291–92 •, p. 274. • Howard Louis Conard (1901).. Retrieved November 3, 2011. •, pp. 276–307.

Retrieved May 28, 2017. Maryland State Archives. Archived from on January 11, 2008. Retrieved February 6, 2008.

•, p. 284–87. Harris, Lincoln and the Border States: Preserving the Union (University Press of Kansas, 2011), p. 71, • Howard, F. (Frank Key) (1863)..

Retrieved August 18, 2014. • Nevins, The War for the Union (1959), 1:119–29.

• Nevins, The War for the Union (1959), 1:129–36. West Virginia Archives & History.

Retrieved April 20, 2012. • Curry, Richard Orr (1964), A House Divided, A Study of the Statehood Politics & the Copperhead Movement in West Virginia, University of Pittsburgh Press, map on p. • Snell, Mark A., West Virginia and the Civil War, History Press, Charleston, SC, 2011, p.

• Keegan, 'The American Civil War', p. Over 10,000 military engagements took place during the war, 40 percent of them in Virginia and Tennessee. See Gabor Boritt, ed.

War Comes Again (1995), p. 247. • 'With an actual strength of 1,080 officers and 14,926 enlisted men on June 30, 1860, the Regular Army.' Pp. 199–221, American Military History. Merton Coulter, Confederate States of America (1950) p. Nicolay and John Hay (, vol. 264) state: 'Since the organization of the Montgomery government in February, some four different calls for Southern volunteers had been made. In his message of April 29 to the rebel Congress, Jefferson Davis proposed to organize for instant action an army of 100,000.'

Coulter reports that Alexander Stephens took this to mean Davis wanted unilateral control of a standing army, and from that moment on became his implacable opponent. • Albert Burton Moore. Conscription and Conflict in the Confederacy (1924). • Albert Bernhardt Faust, (1909). The railroads and banks grew rapidly.

See also Oberholtzer, A History of the United States Since the Civil War (1926), 3:69–122. • Barnet Schecter, The Devil's Own Work: The Civil War Draft Riots and the Fight to Reconstruct America (2007). • Eugene Murdock, One Million Men: the Civil War draft in the North (1971). • Judith Lee Hallock, 'The Role of the Community in Civil War Desertion.' Civil War History (1983) 29#2 pp. Bearman, 'Desertion as localism: Army unit solidarity and group norms in the U.S. Social Forces (1991) 70#2 pp.

• Robert Fantina, Desertion and the American soldier, 1776–2006 (2006), p. 74. • Roger Pickenpaugh (2013)..

University of Alabama Press. •, pp. 288–89, 296–98. Teaster and Linda and James Treaster Ambrose, The Confederate Submarine H. Hunley (1989) •, p. 345.

•, pp. 224-225. 'The Perils of Running the Blockade: The Influence of International Law in an Era of Total War,' Civil War History (1986) 32#2, pp. 101–18 • Stephen R.

Wise, Lifeline of the Confederacy: Blockade Running during the Civil War (1991) • Surdam, David G. 'The Union Navy's blockade reconsidered'. Naval War College Review. 51 (4): 85–107.

Surdam, Northern Naval Superiority and the Economics of the American Civil War (University of South Carolina Press, 2001). • Whitsell, Robert D. 'Military and Naval Activity between Cairo and Columbus'.

Register of the Kentucky Historical Society. 62 (2): 107–21. Smith, Tinclads in the Civil War: Union Light-Draught Gunboat Operations on Western Waters, 1862–1865 (2009). • Ronald Scott Mangum, 'The Vicksburg Campaign: A Study In Joint Operations,' Parameters: U.S.

Army War College (1991) 21#3, pp. 74–86 •, p. 464–519. • Bruce Catton, Terrible Swift Sword, pp. •, pp. 424–27. • ^, pp. 538–44. •, pp. 528–33.

•, pp. 543–45. •, pp. 557–558. •, pp. 571–74. •, pp. 639–45.

• Jonathan A. Noyalas (3 Dec 2010).. Arcadia Publishing. •, pp. 653–663. •, pp. 404–05.

•, pp. 418–20. •, pp. 419–20. •, pp. 480–83.

•, pp. 405–13. •, pp. 637–38. •, pp. 677–80. Martin, Third War: Irregular Warfare on the Western Border 1861–1865 (Combat Studies Institute Leavenworth Paper series, number 23, 2012). See also, Michael Fellman, Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri during the Civil War (1989).

Missouri alone was the scene of over 1,000 engagements between regular units, and uncounted numbers of guerrilla attacks and raids by informal pro-Confederate bands, especially in the recently settled western counties. • Bohl, Sarah (2004). 'A War on Civilians: Order Number 11 and the Evacuation of Western Missouri'. 36 (1): 44–51. • Graves, William H. 'Indian Soldiers for the Gray Army: Confederate Recruitment in Indian Territory'.

Chronicles of Oklahoma. 69 (2): 134–145. Frederick; Jr (1996). 'Stand Watie: Confederate General in the Cherokee Nation'. Great Plains Journal. 6 (1): 36–51. •, p. 220–21.

Neely Jr.; 'Was the Civil War a Total War?' Civil War History, Vol.

50, 2004, pp. 434+. Grant (1990). Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant; Selected Letters. Library of America. • Ron Field (2013)..

Osprey Publishing. •, pp. 724–42. •, pp. 778–79. •, pp. 773–76. •, pp. 812–15. •, pp. 825–30. •, pp. 846–47.

• William Marvel, Lee's Last Retreat: The Flight to Appomattox (2002), pp. • Unaware of the surrender of Lee, on April 16 the last major battles of the war were fought at the and the. • February 7, 2016, at the. Retrieved February 6, 2016.

• Morris, John Wesley, Ghost towns of Oklahoma, University of Oklahoma Press, 1977, pp. 68–69, •, pp. 546–57. • Allan Nevins, War for the Union 1862–1863, pp. Doyle, The Cause of All Nations: An International History of the American Civil War (2014), pp. 8 (quote), 69–70. • Richard Huzzeym, Freedom Burning: Anti-Slavery and Empire in Victorian Britain (2013) •, The Approaching Fury: Voices of the Storm 1820–1861, p. 125.

• ^ James McPherson, Why did the Confederacy Lose? • Railroad length is from: (ed.), One Hundred Years of American Commerce 1795–1895, p. 111; For other data see: and Carter, Susan B., ed. The Historical Statistics of the United States: Millennial Edition (5 vols), 2006.

• Martis, Kenneth C., 'The Historical Atlas of the Congresses of the Confederate States of America: 1861–1865' Simon & Schuster (1994) p. At the beginning of 1865, the Confederacy controlled one-third of its congressional districts, which were apportioned by population. The major slave-populations found in Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, and Alabama were effectively under Union control by the end of 1864.

• Digital History Reader, Virginia Tech, Retrieved August 21, 2012. 'Total Union railroad miles' aggregates existing track reported 1860 @ 21800 plus new construction 1860–1864 @ 5000, plus southern railroads administered by USMRR @ 2300. •, pp. 771–72. •, p. 1207–10. Merton Coulter, The Confederate States of America, 1861–1865 (1950), p.

Beringer, Herman Hattaway, Archer Jones and William N. Still Jr, Why the South Lost the Civil War (1991), ch 1. • Armstead Robinson, Bitter Fruits of Bondage: The Demise of Slavery and the Collapse of the Confederacy, 1861–1865 (University of Virginia Press, 2004) • see Alan Farmer,, No.

•, pp. 169–72. • Fehrenbacher, Don (2004).. University of Illinois. Retrieved October 16, 2007. •, pp. 382–88. Doyle, The Cause of All Nations: An International History of the American Civil War (2014).

Bordewich,, Wall Street Journal (February 7–8, 2015). • ^ Dupont, Brandon; Rosenbloom, Joshua L..

Explorations in Economic History.. • ^ Hacker, J. David (September 20, 2011).. The New York Times... Retrieved September 22, 2011.

• Richard Wightman Fox (2008).' National Geographic News.

July 1, 2003. • Teresa Riordan (March 8, 2004).. The New York Times... Retrieved December 23, 2013.

• ^ Herbert Aptheker, 'Negro Casualties in the Civil War', The Journal of Negro History, Vol. (January 1947). • Professor James Downs.

'Sick from Freedom: African-American Illness and Suffering during the Civil War and Reconstruction'. January 1, 2012.

• Ron Field and Peter Dennis (2013).. Osprey Publishing. • Claudia Goldin, 'The economics of emancipation.' The Journal of Economic History 33#1 (1973): 66–85.

•, ', April 2, 2011, pp. • McPherson, pp. 506–8. •, pp. 355, 494–96, 495.

•, pp. 831–37. •, pp. 791–98. • Lincoln's letter to O. Browning, September 22, 1861. Sentiment among was largely anti-slavery especially among, resulting in hundreds of thousands of German Americans volunteering to fight for the Union. ' Wittke, Carl (1952). 'Refugees of Revolution'.

Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania press. ', Christian B.

Keller, 'Flying Dutchmen and Drunken Irishmen: The Myths and Realities of Ethnic Civil War Soldiers', Journal of Military History, Vol/ 73, No. 1, January 2009, pp.

117–45; for primary sources see Walter D. Kamphoefner and Wolfgang Helbich, eds, Germans in the Civil War: The Letters They Wrote Home (2006). 'On the other hand, many of the recent immigrants in the North viewed freed slaves as competition for scarce jobs, and as the reason why the Civil War was being fought.' Baker, Kevin (March 2003).,.

Retrieved July 29, 2010. 'Due in large part to this fierce competition with free blacks for labor opportunities, the poor and working class generally opposed emancipation. When the draft began in the summer of 1863, they launched that was suppressed by the military, as well as much smaller protests in other cities.' Barnet Schecter, The Devil's Own Work: The Civil War Draft Riots and the Fight to Reconstruct America (2007), ch 6. Many Catholics in the North had volunteered to fight in 1861, sending thousands of soldiers to the front and taking high casualties, especially at; their volunteering fell off after 1862. • Baker, Kevin (March 2003).,.

Retrieved July 29, 2010. • McPherson, James, in Gabor S.

Lincoln, the War President, pp. •, Abraham Lincoln: The Man Behind the Myths, p. 106. • 'Lincoln Letter to Greeley, August 22, 1862'. • Pulling, Sr. Anne Francis.

'Images of America: Altoona, 2001, 10. • Lincoln's Letter to A. Hodges, April 4, 1864. • Harper, Douglas (2003).. From the original on October 16, 2007.

Retrieved October 16, 2007. • ' James McPherson, The War that Never Goes Away' •, p. 82. •, p. 172–174. • Murray, pp. Trefousse, Historical Dictionary of Reconstruction (Greenwood, 1991) covers all the main events and leaders. • Eric Foner's A Short History of Reconstruction (1990) is a brief survey.

Vann Woodward, Reunion and Reaction: The Compromise of 1877 and the End of Reconstruction (2nd edn 1991). • Joan Waugh and Gary W. Gallagher, eds (2009), Wars within a War: Controversy and Conflict over the American Civil War (University of North Carolina Press). Blight, Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory (2001). Woodworth (1996)..

• Stephen Cushman (2014).. Ritter and Jon L. Wakelyn, eds., Leaders of the American Civil War: A Biographical and Historiographical Dictionary (1998) Provide short biographies and valuable historiographical summaries • Wilson Fallin Jr, Uplifting the People: Three Centuries of Black Baptists in Alabama (2007), pp.

• Fallin, Uplifting the People: Three Centuries of Black Baptists in Alabama (2007), pp. Foster (1988), Ghosts of the Confederacy: Defeat, the Lost Cause and the Emergence of the New South, 1865–1913. • Nolan, Alan T., in Gallagher, Gary W., and Alan T. Nolan, The Myth of the Lost Cause and Civil War history (2000), pp. • Nolan, The Myth of the Lost Cause, pp. Beard and Mary R.

Beard, The Rise of American Civilization (1927), 2:54. • Richard Hofstadter (2012) [1968].. Knopf Doubleday. Smith, 'The Golden Age of Battlefield Preservation' (2008; The University of Tennessee Press). • Bob Zeller, 'Fighting the Second Civil War: A History of Battlefield Preservation and the Emergence of the Civil War Trust,' (2017: Knox Press) • Gary Gallagher, Causes Won, Lost, and Forgotten: How Hollywood and Popular Art Shape What We Know about the Civil War (Univ of North Carolina Press, 2008).

• Bailey, Thomas and David Kennedy: The American Pageant, p. 1987 • Dome, Steam (1974). 'A Civil War Iron Clad Car'. Railroad History. The Railway & Locomotive Historical Society.

130 (Spring 1974): 51–53. • William Rattle Plum, The Military Telegraph During the Civil War in the United States, ed. Christopher H. Sterling(New York: Arno Press, 1974) vol. • Buckley, John.

Air Power in the Age of Total War (Warfare and History). Routledge; 1 edition (December 18, 1998). • Sondhaus, Naval Warfare 1815–1914 p. • Keegan, John (2009). The American Civil War: A Military History. Vintage Books. • Ahlstrom, Sydney E.

New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.. • Anderson, Bern (1989).. New York, New York: Da Capo Press.. • Asante, Molefi Kete; Mazama, Ama (2004).. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications..

• Beringer, Richard E., Archer Jones, and Herman Hattaway, Why the South Lost the Civil War (1986), influential analysis of factors; an abridged version is The Elements of Confederate Defeat: Nationalism, War Aims, and Religion (1988) • Bestor, Arthur (1964). 'The American Civil War as a Constitutional Crisis'.. 69 (2): 327–52..

• Canney, Donald L. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press..

• Catton, Bruce (1960). The Civil War. New York: American Heritage Distributed by Houghton Mifflin.. • Chambers, John W.; Anderson, Fred (1999)..

Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.. • Davis, William C. Stand in the Day of Battle: The Imperiled Union: 1861–1865. Garden City, New York: Doubleday..

• Davis, William C. Look Away!: A History of the Confederate States of America. New York: Free Press.. • Donald, David; Baker, Jean H.; Holt, Michael F.

The Civil War and Reconstruction. Norton & Company.. • Fehrenbacher, Don E. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.. • Fellman, Michael;; Sunderland, Daniel E. This Terrible War: The Civil War and its Aftermath (2 ed.). New York: Pearson..

• Foner, Eric (1981).. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.. Retrieved April 20, 2012. • Foner, Eric (2010).. Norton & Co.. • Foote, Shelby (1974)..

New York: Vintage Books.. • Frank, Joseph Allan; Reaves, George A. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press.. • Fuller, Howard J. Clad in Iron – The American Civil War and the Challenge of British Naval Power. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press.. • Gallagher, Gary W.

Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.. • Gara, Larry. The Fugitive Slave Law: A Double Paradox in Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970 (originally published in Civil War History, X, No. 3, September 1964) • Green, Fletcher M. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press.. • Guelzo, Allen C.

Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.. • Guelzo, Allen C. Fateful Lightning: A New History of the Civil War and Reconstruction. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.. David (December 2011).. Civil War History. 57 (4): 307–48...

• Heidler, David S.; Heidler, Jeanne T.; Coles, David J. Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO.. • Herring, George C. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press..

• Hofstadter, Richard (1938). 'The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War'..

44 (1): 50–55.. • Holt, Michael F. The Fate of Their Country: Politicians, Slavery Extension, and the Coming of the Civil War. New York: Hill and Wang.. • Holzer, Harold; Gabbard, Sara Vaughn (2007).. Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press..

• Huddleston, John (2002). Killing Ground: The Civil War and the Changing American Landscape. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.. • Johannsen, Robert W. New York: Oxford University Press..

• Johnson, Timothy D. Winfield Scott: The Quest for Military Glory. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas.. • Jones, Howard (1999).. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press.. • Jones, Howard (2002).. Wilmington, Delaware: Rowman & Littlefield..

• Keegan, John (2009). The American Civil War: A Military History. New York: Alfred A. • Krannawitter, Thomas L.

Vindicating Lincoln: defending the politics of our greatest president. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers..

• Lipset, Seymour Martin (1960). Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics.

Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc. • McPherson, James M. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.. • McPherson, James M. Ordeal By Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction (2 ed.).

New York: McGraw-Hill.. • McPherson, James M. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.. • McPherson, James M. This Mighty Scourge: Perspectives on the Civil War. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.. • Thornton, Mark; Ekelund, Robert Burton (2004).

Tariffs, Blockades, and Inflation: The Economics of the Civil War. Rowman & Littlefield. • Murray, Robert Bruce. Legal Cases of the Civil War (2003). • Murray, Williamson; Bernstein, Alvin; Knox, MacGregor (1996).. Cabmbridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.. • Neely, Mark (1993)..

Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Marquette University Press.. • Nelson, James L. New York: HarperCollins.. •., an 8-volume set (1947–1971). The most detailed political, economic and military narrative; by Pulitzer Prize-winner • 1.; 2. A House Dividing, 1852–1857; 3.

Douglas, Buchanan, and Party Chaos, 1857–1859; 4. Prologue to Civil War, 1859–1861; vols 5–8 have the series title War for the Union; 5. The Improvised War, 1861–1862; 6.; War Becomes Revolution, 1862–1863; 7. The Organized War, 1863–1864; 8. The Organized War to Victory, 1864–1865 • Olsen, Christopher J.

Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.. • Perman, Michael; Taylor, Amy M. Boston, Massachusetts: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.. • Potter, David M. 'The Historian's Use of Nationalism and Vice Versa'..

67 (4): 924–50.. • Potter, David M.; Fehrenbacher, Don E. The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861. New York: Harper & Row.. • Rhodes, John Ford (1917)..

New York: The Macmillan Company. • Richter, William L. Lanham: Scarecrow Press.. • Russell, Robert R. 'Constitutional Doctrines with Regard to Slavery in Territories'..

32 (4): 466–86... • Schott, Thomas E. Stephens of Georgia: A Biography. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press.. • Sheehan-Dean, Aaron, ed.

New York: Wiley Blackwell.., 2 vol. 1232 pp; 64 topical chapters by experts; emphasis on historiography. • Stampp, Kenneth M. America in 1857: A Nation on the Brink. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.. Doubleday & Company, Inc. • Symonds, Craig L.; Clipson, William J.

Naval Institute Press.. • Tucker, Spencer C.; Pierpaoli, Paul G.; White, William E. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO.. • Varon, Elizabeth R. Disunion!: The Coming of the American Civil War, 1789–1859.

Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press.. • Vinovskis, Maris (1990).. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.. • Ward, Geoffrey R.

The Civil War: An Illustrated History. New York: Alfred A. • Weeks, William E. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press..

• Weigley, Frank Russell (2004).. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press.. • Welles, Gideon (1865).. American Seamen's Friend Society. • Winters, John D. Baton Rouge, Louisiana:.. • Woodworth, Steven E.

American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research. Wesport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press.. Further reading • Gugliotta, Guy.,, April 3, 2012, p. D1 (of the New York edition), and April 2, 2012, on NYTimes.com.

Retrieved 2012-04-03 online. • Tidball, John C. The Artillery Service in the War of the Rebellion, 1861-1865. Westholme Publishing, 2011.. External links. Find more about American Civil Warat Wikipedia's • from Wiktionary • from Wikimedia Commons • from Wikinews • from Wikiquote • from Wikisource • from Wikibooks • from Wikivoyage • from Wikiversity • from Wikidata • at Curlie (based on ) • at the • from the at the Library of Congress • • This collection contains digital images of political cartoons, personal papers, pamphlets, maps, paintings and photographs from the Civil War Era held in Special Collections at Gettysburg College. • Washington Post interactive website on the 150th Anniversary of the American Civil War.

• – An Association of Southeastern Research Libraries (ASERL) portal with links to almost 9,000 digitized Civil War-era items—books, pamphlets, broadsides, letters, maps, personal papers, and manuscripts—held at ASERL member libraries • – site with 7,000 pages, including the complete run of Harper's Weekly newspapers from the Civil War • The short film is available for free download at the • • •, •.